
Class J^I~j±2^ 
Book r B> £/ 
GopghtN 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



NOTICE 



This Book Has Been Brought Up-to. 
Date by the Addition of an Appendix 
Which Describes Fully the Improved 
Westinghouse Equipment Developed 
for Use on Locomotives and Freight 
Cars. (See Pages 301 to 367.) 

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY 

PUBLISHING COMPANY 

132 Nassau Street, New York, U. S. A. 



1907 EDITION 

UP-TO-DATE 



Air Brake Catechism 



A complete study of the equipment manufactured by the 
Westinghouse Air Brake Company, including the 
Schedule ET Locomotive Brake Equip- 
ment ; the K (Quick*Service) Triple Valve 
for Freight Service; and the Cross 
Compound Pump. 

The operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained 

in detail, and a practical way of finding their 

peculiarities and defects with a 

proper remedy is given 

BY 

ROBERT H. BLACKALL 

ASSISTANT TO GENERAL MANAGER WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE CO. 

This book has been endorsed and used by air brake 
instructors and examiners on nearly every 
railroad in the United States. It is the standard and 
only complete work on the subject. Contains 
nearly 2,000 questions with their answers, 
giving the necessary information to en- 
able a railroad man to pass a thor- 
oughly satisfactory examination 
of the subject of air brakes. 

Twenty-first Edition, Revised and Enlarged 

Fully illustrated with detailed engravings and folding plates 

New York : 

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 

132 Nassau Street 

1907 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

FEB IS 1907 

.Copyright ERtry 
CLASS A XXcNo, 

"-MV- I 






Copyrighted, 1898 

BY 

NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 



Copyrighted, 1900 

BY 
NORMAN W. HENLEY & C Q. 



Copyrighted, 1903 

BY 

NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 



Copyrighted, 1907 

BY 

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 




H>tfJtcation* 



THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO 

R. C. BLACKALL, 

SUPERINTENDENT OF MACHINERY, D. & H. CO. 

AS A TOKEN OF APPRECIATION 

OF HIS 

EXECUTIVE ABILITY AND INTELLIGENT SERVICE 

DURING A LONG PERIOD OF 

PRACTICAL RAILROADING. 



Preface to Twenty-first Edition. 

The issuing of the present edition of this book, Up-to- 
date Air-Brake Catechism with an appendix, shows that the 
book is filling the want it was designed to meet. 

The changed conditions of service which now prevail, 
and which consist in longer trains, cars of heavier capacity 
and locomotives with a power and weight commensurate 
with their increased duties, has made imperative some radi- 
cal changes in the air brake art. The original brake was 
designed with the idea in mind that the maximum length 
of train would be fifty cars, and the capacity of these cars 
60,000 pounds. The usual capacity is now 100,000 pounds, 
the number of cars in a train is often over 100, and the 
hauling power of the locomotive has kept pace. The result 
of these changes has been that the apparatus which has 
been in use for so many years is not adequate to handle, 
with the desired efficiency, the long and heavy trains of 
to-day. 

To meet these conditions the Westinghouse Air Brake 
Company has developed an engine and car equipment by 
the use of which even better results are obtained with the 
long and heavy trains than could be obtained with the older 
equipment and the shorter trains. 

The appendix to this book has been written with a 
view of explaining the operation of this new equipment 
with which it will be necessary for railroad employees 
to become familiar to avail themselves of the many advan- 
tages which it makes possible. 

The author wishes to take this opportunity to again 
thank the railroad public for their continued support which 
has been very gratifying to hirru 

February, 1907. Robert H. Blackall. 



PREFACE TO TWELFTH EDITION. 

The success of previous editions of this book has led 
the author to add several new chapters to the present 
edition, and at the same time the work has been revised 
and corrected to date. 

I desire to now express thanks for the many favorable 
letters received from students of the Air Brake. 

ROBERT H. BLACKALL. 



PREFACE 

There is a law compelling railroad companies to have 
a sufficient number of cars to control trains equipped with 
air brakes by January i, 1900. In view of this, there is a 
vast army of railroad employees, especially engine and train 
crews and air-brake machinists, whose work demands a 
practical and thorough understanding of that subject. 

There is no book published which gives a complete study 
of the air-brake equipment, including the latest devices and 
inventions used. It is to meet the demand for such a book 
that the present work is designed. 

The book includes a complete discussion of all parts 
of the air-brake equipment, the troubles and peculiarities 
encountered, and a practical way to find and remedy them. 
It is written in the familiar style of the class-room, the 
method of question and answer being adopted, as in that 
way each point to be enforced may be more definitely and 
clearly brought out. 

Train and engine crews will find special and practical as- 
sistance to their work under the subjects Train Hand- 
ling and Train Inspection. 

The aim of the author has been to make the subject 
matter of such a character as will be readily understood by 
beginners, and by progression under each topic, to cover 
also the more intricate work, which will make the book valu- 
able to those advanced in the subject. 

ROBERT H. BLACK ALL, 
Air-Brake Inspector, D. & H. C. Co. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Preface. 

Beginnings of the Air Brake .... 

Westinghouse Automatic Brake 

Triple Valve ..... 

Plain Triple Valve . . . . 

Function of the Triple Valve . 

Quick-Action Triple Valve 

Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple Valve 

Freight Equipment .... 

Piston Travel ...... 

American Brake-Slack Adjuster 

Westinghouse Retaining Valves — Operation, Troubles, 

Benefits ...... 

Main Reservoir ..... 

Westinghouse Engineer's Brake Valves 

G 6 Brake Valve ..... 

Slide- Valve Feed Valve .... 

Feed Valve or Trainline Governor (Old Style) 

Engineer's Equalizing Reservoir or " Little Drum 

Peculiarities and Troubles . 
Westinghouse D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve . 

Operation and Description . 

Peculiarities and Troubles 
Comparison of G 6 and D 8 Engineer's* Brake Valve 
Westinghouse Air Pumps .... 

Nine and One-Half -Inch Pump 

Peculiarities and Care 

Eight-Inch Pump .... 

Nine and One-Half -Inch Pump, Right and Left Hand 

Eleven-Inch Pump ..... 
Westinghouse Pump Governors — 

Operation, Peculiarities and Care 



PAGE 

17-20 

21 

22-48 

22-34 

27-34 
35-48 
40-48 
49-53 
54-65 
66-73 

74-83 

84-88 

89-131 

91-117 

101-104 

105-109 

110-113 

114-117 

118-129 

1 18-125 

126-129 

130-131 

132-153 

132-144 

137-144 
145-149 
149-150 
151-153 

154-160 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



The Sweeney Compressor 
The Water Brake . 

For Simple Engines . 

For Compound Engines . 
Westinghouse Signal System 

Operation and Description 

Peculiarities and Troubles 
High-Speed Brake 

Schedule U or High-Pressure Control 
Combined Automatic and Straight Air 
Duplex Main Reservoir Regulation 
Appliances and Methods of Testing Triple Valv 
Ivubricants ..... 

Air Brake Recording Gages 

Train Inspection .... 

Train Handling ..... 

Brake Tests ..... 

Piping ...... 

Cam Brake . . . . 

Braking Power and Leverage . 

Cylinders to be Used on Different Vehicles 

American Brake Leverage 

Air Hose and Specifications 

Rules and Formulae for Air-Brake Inspectors 

SCHEDULE ET 

Brake Valves (automatic and independent) 

Distributing Valve 

Safety Valve .... 

Feed Valves B-4 and B-3 

SF (excess-pressure) Pump Governor . 

Defects of ET Equipment . 
K Type (quick-service) Triple Valve . 
8>£-Inch Cross-Compound Pump . 



161 
162-169 
163-165 
165-169 
170-184 
170-178 
179-184 
185-196 
197-200 
201-213 
214-216 
217-227 

228 
229-233 
234-242 
243-261 
261-267 
268-269 

270 
271-286 

287 
288-290 
291-294 

295-299 

307-349 
314-326 

327-336 
337-338 
339-341 
342-345 
346-349 
350-357 
358-367 



List of Illustrations of Westinghouse 
Air Brake and Signal Equipment. 



Plate I. 



Plate II. 



Plate III. 



Plate IV. 

Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Plate V. 



Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 
Fig. ii. 
Fig. 12. 

Fig. 13. 
Fig. 14. 



Colored Chart Showing General Arrangement of 
High-Speed and Signal Equipment on Passen- 
ger Engine, Passenger-Engine Tender and 
Passenger Car. 

Colored Chart Showing General Arrangement of 
Air Brake Equipment on Freight or Switch- 
Engine, Freight or Switch-Engine Tender and 
Freight Car. 

Colored Chart Showing Usual Location of Air 
Brake and Signal Equipment on an Engine 
and Tender. 

Showing Different Positions and Parts of the 
Plain Triple Valve, including : 
Plain Triple Valve — Release Position 
Plain Triple Valve —Service Position 
Plain Triple Valve — Lap Position 
Plain Triple Valve — Emergency Position 

Showing Different Positions and Parts of the 
Quick- Action Triple Valve, including : 

, Quick- Action Triple Valve — Release Position. 

. Quick- Action Triple Valve — Service Position . 

. Quick- Action Triple Valve — Lap position 

. Quick-Action Triple Valve — Emergency Posi- 
tion 

. Quick- Action Triple Valve Slide- Valve Bushing 

. Quick- Action Triple Valve Slide- Valve . 

Freight Equipment ...... 

Showing Application of American Brake Slack 
Adjuster to a Passenger Car .... 

Sectional View of American Brake-Slack Adjuster 

Showing Proper Method of Drilling Brake Cyl- 
inders when used with The American Brake- 
Black Adjuster 



50 

67 
70 



72 



List of Illustrations. 



Fig. 15. Sectional View of Pressure Retaining Valve . 75 

Fig. 16. Retaining Valve used with 12, 14 and 16-inch 

Brake Cylinders ...... 82 

Fig. 17. " Pullman " Retaining Valve, used on Vestibule 

Cars 82 

Fig. 18. Standard Retaining Valve used with 6, 8 and 

10-inch Brake Cylinders 82 

Fig. 19. Driver Brake Retaining Valve .... 82 
Fig. 20. D8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position . 93 
Plate VI. Showing Sectional Views of the G6 Engineer's 
Brake Valve and Slide Valve Feed Valve, in- 
cluding : 
Fig. 21. G6 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position 
Fig. 22. G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve — Running Position 
Fig. 23. G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve — Plan View . 
Fig. 24. Slide Valve Feed Valve, Section Through Sup- 
ply Valve Piston 

Fig. 25. Slide Valve Feed Valve, Section Through Re- 
gulating Part 

Fig. 26. Rotary Valve of G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve 

(top view) 

Fig. 27. Rotary Valve of G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve 
(bottom view) ...... 

Fig. 28. Feed Valve or Train Line Governor (old style) . 106 

Fig. 29. Feed Valve Gasket 107 

Fig. 30. Engineer's Equalizing Reservoir or "Little 

Drum" ........ no 

Fig. 31. D8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position . 118 

Fig. 32. D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position . 122 

Fig. 33. D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Plan View of Rotary 

Seat 123 

Fig. 34. Rotary Valve of D 8 Engineers Brake Valve 

(bottom view) 124 

Plate VII. Nine and One-Half Inch Pump. 

Fig. 35. Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump, Front Section 
Fig. 36. Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump, Side Section . 
Fig. 37. Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump, Main Valve 

Bush 

Fig. 38. Eight-Inch Pump in Section .... 146 

Fig. 39. Right and Left Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump 150 



List of Illustrations. 



Plate VIII. 
Fig. 40 
Fig. 41. 

Fig. 42. 

Fig. 43- 

Fig. 44. 

Fig. 45- 

Fig. 46. 

Fig. 47- 

Fig. 48. 

Fig. 49. 

Fig. 50. 

Fig. 51. 

Fig. 52. 

Fig. 53- 

Fig. 54- 
Plate IX. 

Fig. 55- 

Fig. 56. 

Fig. 57. 



Fig. 


58. 


Fig. 


59. 


Fig. 


60. 


Plate X 


Fig. 


61. 


Fig. 


62 


Fig. 


63. 


Fig. 


64. 


Fig. 


65. 


Fig. 


66. 


Fig. 


67. 



Engines, 
Engines 



Eleven-Inch Pump. 

Eleven-inch Pump, Front Section 

Eleven-inch Pump, Side Section 
Improved Pump Governor 
Old Style Pump Governor 
Water Brake on Simple Engine . 
Baldwin Water Brake for Compound 

Side View 

Baldwin Water Brake for Compound 

Front View 

Signal Equipment on Engine 
Signal Equipment on Passenger Car 
Air Signal Strainer 
Car Discharge Valve 

Signal Valve 

Improved Signal Reducing Valve 

Signal Whistle .... 

Old Style Reducing Valve 

High-Speed Brake Equipment. 

High-Speed Automatic Reducing Valve 

Section of High-Speed Reducing Valve Showing 

Position of Ports in Emergency Stop 
Section of High-Speed Reducing Valve Showing 

Position of Ports with Cylinder Pressure 

Slightly Exceeding 60 Pounds 
Section of High-Speed Reducing Valve Showing 

Position of Ports in Release Position 
High-Speed Reducing Valve Shown Attached 

to Car 

Showing Comparative Efficiency of Westing- 
house Brakes . 

Schedule U or High-Pressure Control Apparatus. 

Safety Valve 

Diagrammatic Representation of CombinedAuto- 

matic and Straight- Air Brake .... 
Double Check Valve 
Straight- Air Brake Valve 
Straight-Air Brake Valve 
Straight-Air Brake Valve 
Straight- Air Brake Valve 



155 
158 
164 

166 

168 
170 
172 
173 
174 
176 
177 
178 
179 

187 

189 

189 
189 
191 

193 
199 

202 
204 
208 
208 
209 
209 



List of Illustrations. 



Fig. 68. Section Through Straight-Air Brake Valve 
Fig. 69. Duplex Main Reservoir Regulation, Method of 

Piping 

Fig. 70. Method of Drilling Brake Valve for Duplex 

Main Reservoir Regulation 
Fig. 71. Method of Drilling Brake Valve for Duplex 

Main Reservoir Regulation 
Fig. 72. Controlling Valve, End Section . 
Fig. 73. Controlling Valve, Side Section . 
Fig. 74. Portable Yard Testing Plant, Side View 
Fig* 75* Portable Yard Testing Plant, End View- 
Plate XI. Cleaner's Test for Triple Valves, including : 
Fig. 76. Cleaner's Test, Side View .... 
Fig. 77. Cleaner's Test, Top View .... 
Fig. 78. Cleaner's Test, End View . 
Plate XII. Shop Repair Test for Triple Valves, including : 
Fig. 79. Shop Repair Test, Side View 
3. Shop Repair Test, Top View 
[. Shop Repair Test, End View 
Air Brake Recording Gauge, Revolving Type 
Air Brake Recording Guage, Horizontal Type 
Lever of First Class . . 
Lever of First Class, Applied to Car Wheel 
Lever of Second Class ..... 
Lever of Second Class, Applied to Car Wheel 

Lever of Third Class 

Lever of Third Class, Applied to Car Wheel 
Hodge System of Leverage .... 
Steven's System of Leverage 
Hodge System of Leverage . 
Leverage System for Tenders 
American Driver-Brake Leverage 
Showing Markings on Air Hose . . . 
Method of Testing Hose .... 
This shows exterior and sections of all of the 
valves included in Schedule ET. The num- 
bers of the cuts are from Figure 97 to 118, 
inclusive. 
Plate XIV. K (quick-service) Triple Valve, Figs. 121 to 

128, inclusive. 
Figs. 129 to 131, inclusive : The 8^-inch Cross-Compound 

Pump. 





Fig. 8 




Fig. 8 


Fig. 


£2. 


Fig. 


83. 


Fig. 


84. 


Fig. 


85. 


Fig. 


86. 


Fig. 


87. 


Fig. 


88. 


Fig. 


89. 


Fig. 


90. 


Fig. 


9i. 


Fig. 


92. 


Fig. 


93- 


Fig. 


94. 


Fig. 


95- 


Fig. 


96. 


Plate XIII 



BEGINNINGS OF THE 

AIR BRAKE 



Q. What is aft air brake ? 

A. A brake worked by compressed air. 

Q. What was the first form of air brake used ? 

A. The straight air brake. 

Q. By whom and when was it invented ? 

A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1869. 

Q. What forms of brake did it supplant ? 
A, The hand and the spring brakes. 

Q. What parts were necessary to operate the 
straight air brake ? 

A. An air pump, main reservoir, a valve called the 
three-way cock used to control the application and release 
of the brakes, a train pipe, and brake cylinders. 

Q. What parts were on the engine ? 

A. A main reservoir, pump, and engineer's valve. 

Q. What parts were on the car ? 

A. The train pipe and cylinder. 

Q. Where was the braking power stored with this 
syste7n ? 

A. In the main reservoir on the engine. 



18 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How were the brakes applied ? 

A. By changing the position of the three-way cock 
on the engine so as to allow the main reservoir pressure 
to flow into the train line. The train line, connected 
directly with the brake cylinder, allowed air to pass into 
the cylinder, forcing the piston out and applying the brake. 

Q. Why was this brake unsatisfactory ? 

A. For several reasons. First, the tendency of the 
brake was to apply soonest at the head end of the train. 
If they were applied suddenly the slack running ahead 
would cause severe shocks and damage. Second, if a 
hose burst in the train, the brakes could not be set with 
air, as it would pass out the burst hose to the atmosphere. 
Third, on a long train the main reservoir pressure would 
equalize with that in the train line and brake cylinders 
at a low pressure on account of the large space to be filled ; 
before the brakes were full set the engineer would have 
to allow the pump to compress air into the train line and 
brake cylinders, and before maximum braking power 
was obtained the train would be stopped. Fourth, the 
effect of friction on the flow of air from main reservoir 
through a long train made this brake slower. 

Q. What was the next form after the straight 
air brake ? 

A. The automatic. 

Q. By whom and when was it invented ? 
A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1873. 

Q. What gains over the hand brake are made 
with the air brake f 

A. With a train of fifty modern equipped air-brake 
cars, a full and harder set brake is obtained on the entire 
train more quickly than a hand brake can be set on one 
car. Since trains handled on heavy grades have to be 



Beginnings of the Air Brake. 19 

slowed down for the purpose of recharging, by this means 
the wheels are given a chance to cool. With the hand 
brakes used on heavy grades, the shoes grind against the 
wheels down nearly, or quite all of the grade so that often 
the train is wrecked because the wheels are heated to so 
high a temperature that they break. Air brakes give 
us an increased speed of trains with greater safety. 

Q. What brake followed the plain-automatic 
brake ? 

A. The quick-action brake, which almost imme- 
diately superseded the plain-automatic brake in 
passenger service, and did very quickly in freight service. 
With this improved apparatus the brake on the last of 
a fifty-car train could, if so desired, be applied in two 
and one-half seconds from the movement of the brake 
valve handle on the engine. 

Q. Is the qitick-action brake still in use f 
A. Yes ; all passenger and freight cars are now 
equipped with this brake, but at present a modified form 
is coming into general use in passenger, mail and ex- 
press service. The modified form is known as the high- 
speed brake, the operation of which is described in 
another part of this book. Plate I shows the parts em- 
ployed and general arrangement of same on an engine, 
tender and passenger car. 

Q. Have any modifications in the general equip- 
ment of the quick-action brake been made in freight 
service ? 

A. Not in the car equipment itself aside from the 
addition of the retaining valve. The engine equipment, 
-though having been gradually developed, still remains 
the same in general, excepting some modifications that 
have been made to meet special conditions. These 
special modifications include the high pressure control 
apparatus commonly known as schedule U, the duplex 



2o Air-Brake Catechism. 

method of main reservoir regulation and the combined 
automatic and straight-air brake, all of which are 
illustrated and described in detail in other parts of this 
book. The general arrangement of the brake equipment 
on a freight engine, freight-engine tender and freight 
car is shown on Plate II. 

Q. What else has been developed along with the 
air-brake apparatus used in passenger service ? 

A. The air whistle signal system, a general plan of 
which is shown on the passenger equipment in Plate I. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE, 

Q. Where was the difference in the equipment 
between the straight air and automatic brake made ? 

A. Besides the train line and brake cylinder, a plain 
triple and an auxiliary reservoir were added to the car. 

Q. With the cars equipped with the automatic 
brake, what gain was made over the straight air 
brake ? 

A. (i) The necessary braking power, regardless of 
the length of the train, was stored in the auxiliary under 
each car for that car, so that the brakes could be full set 
very quickly compared to the action of the straight air 
brake. (2) If the train broke in two or a hose burst, 
the triples would automatically apply the brakes, while 
with the straight air the brakes could not be applied. 

Q. What zvas the essential feature of the auto- 
matic brake ? 

A. The triple valve known as the plain triple. 

Q. Where was it located f 

A. On the car, at the junction of the train line, 
auxiliary, and brake cylinder. 

Q. Did the pump and three-way cock remain on 
the engine ? 

A. Yes ; this was left for later development . 



PLAIN TRIPLE. 

Q. In the study of the triple valve what is the 
main thing to be borne in mind in order to under- 
stand its operation and its probable action under the 
many and varied conditions which are encountered 
in actual service ? 

A. In the study of the triple valve, as well as almost 
any other part of the air-brake or air-signal apparatus, 
a clearer understanding will result if one starts at a 
problem by first asking himself the question, Which is 
the greater or controlling pressure acting on the part 
under consideration ? With this point thoroughly under- 
stood the resultant action of the parts in question can be 
readily traced ; for instance, if a brake is applied, and 
there is a leak in the auxiliary reservoir, we know that 
this will have the effect of lowering the pressure on one 
side of the triple piston. We then know that the 
tendency will be for the piston to move away from the 
greater or trainpipe pressure, and, as will be explained 
later, this defect will cause the release of the brake in 
question. 

Q, Name the different parts of the plain triple 
valve, Plate IV. 

A. 13 and 15 are the cut-out cock and the handle ; 8, 
the graduating post; 9, the graduating spring; m and- 



Plain Triple- 23 

n are feed ports; 5 is the triple piston; 6, the slide 
valve } 7 is the graduating valve which works inside 
the slide valve; 12, a piston-packing ring; 18, slide- 
valve spring ; F, the port leading to the auxiliary ; X 
leads to brake cylinder ; W leads to train-line pressure. 

Q. For what are valve ij and handle 15 used? 

A. They permit the triple to be used as straight air, 
automatic or cut out entirely, as illustrated by the cut 
(Fig. 1, Plate IV). 

Q. What three positions has the handle 15 
{Fig. 1) f 

A. As shown in the cut, by the different positions of 
the handle : so that the triple would be cut in, as it is 
with the handle 15 at right angles to the triple ; point- 
ing straight down, in which case, air coming in at W 
from the train line would go through port e of the plug- 
cock 13 and out into the brake cylinder through X; or 
the handle could stand at an angle of 45 , in which 
position ports f, a and d would all be blanked. 

In the first position the triple is cut in as automatic, 
in the second for straight air. and in the third the triple 
is cut out entirely. 

Q. Can the modern plain triple now sent out be 

cut into straight air ? 
A. No. 

O. Why not? 

A. Because, as shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4, Plate IV, 
the handle 15 and plug 13 are no longer used. The 
cut-out cock is now placed in the crossover pipe (Plate I). 

O. Why was it necessary to have it so arranged 
that it could be cut in as straight air f 

A. When the brakes were gradually being changed 



24 Air-Brake Catechism. 

from straight air to automatic, it sometimes happened 
that only a few cars in the train had the triple applied. 
In this case the handle 15 was turned so as to cut the car 
into straight air to be used with the other straight air cars. 

Q. Of what use are 8 and 9 {Fig. 1) ? 

A. In applying the brakes, when piston 5 moves 
out and touches the stem 8, held by the graduating spring 
9 (Fig. 1), the piston is stopped, if a gradual reduction is 
being made on the train line, when the piston has 
drawn the slide valve down far enough to make a port 
connection between the auxiliary and cylinder. 

Q. If a quick reduction is being made on the 
train line, will the spring g stop the triple piston ? 

A. No; a quick reduction causes the triple piston 5 
to move out quickly, and the sudden impact compresses 
the spring 9, allowing the piston 5 to move out until it 
strikes gasket 11, to what is known as emergency 
position. 

Q. 5 (Fig. 1) is called the triple piston. How is it 
actuated? 

A. Train-line pressure is on the lower side of the 
piston and auxiliary pressure on the upper or slide- 
valve side. It is by changing these pressures that the 
piston is moved. 

Q. What are the duties of the piston as it moves f 

A. To open and close the feed ports m and n (Fig. 1 ) 
through which the train-line pressure flows into the auxil- 
iary, to move the graduating valve 7 and the slide valve 6. 

Q. What is the duty of the graduating valve 7 
{Fig. i) ? 

A. It is the small valve inside the slide valve, and its 
duty as it is moved backward and forward by the triple 
piston is to open and close the port p through which, in 



Plain Triple. 25 

the service application, auxiliary pressure flows to the 
brake cylinder. 

Q. Does the graduating valve move every time 
the triple piston moves? 

A. Yes, because it is fastened to the stem of the 
piston by a pin which passes through both the gradu- 
ating valve and the stem of the triple piston. The pin 
is represented by the dotted lines running through the 
lower end of the graduating valve at right angles to it. 

Q. Could we get along without the graduating 
valve ? 

A. Yes, but the sensitiveness of the triple would be 
destroyed. 

Q. How does the graduating valve make the 
triple sensitive? 

A. A reduction of train-line pressure causes the 
triple to assume service position, and after the auxiliary 
pressure has expanded to a trifle below that in the train 
line, piston 5 (Fig.3)nioves back and closes the graduating 
valve on its seat. Train-line pressure had simply to 
overcome the friction on the triple piston-packing ring 
to do this, but had we no graduating valve the tram- 
line pressure would have had to be strong enough to 
overcome the additional friction of the slide valve to 
move it back far enough to close port£>. When wishing 
to apply brakes harder, a heavier reduction w T ould be 
necessary to again move the slide valve to service 
position. With the graduating valve, the slide valve is 
moved to service position with the first reduction, where 
it remains until the brake is released or in case the 
emergency is used. 

Q. What are the duties of the slide valve ? 

A. In the plain triple, when moved by the triple 
piston, it serves to make a connection between the 



26 Air-Brake Catechism. 

auxiliary and the brake cylinder or between the brake 
cylinder and the atmosphere. 

Q. Does the slide valve move every time the 
piston moves f 

A. No ; the slide valve will not move when the 
piston starts down until it has moved far enough for the 
lug just above 18 (Fig. i) to strike the valve. The 
same, if the piston is down full stroke; when it starts 
back the slide valve will not move until the piston has 
gone back far enough to seat the graduating valve. 

Q. Of what use is the spring i8, Fig. i ? 

A. Its duty is to hold the slide valve on its seat and 
to prevent dirt from collecting there when there is no 
auxiliary pressure to hold the valve on its seat, as when 
the car is "dry." 

Q. What is the difference in the four triple 
valves shozvn on Plate IV? 

A. They are all plain triple valves, but the one 
showing release position is the older type which could 
be cut into straight air. The other three represent the 
modern valve which is cut out or in by means of a cut- 
out cock placed in the cross-over pipe between the 
drain cup and triple valve. 



FUNCTIONS OF THE TRIPLE IN THE 
OPERATION OF THE BRAKE. 

Q. Why is this valve called the triple valve ? 

A. Because it automatically does three things : 
charges the auxiliary, applies the brake and releases it. 

Q. If an engine couples to a car that is not 
charged y how does the triple charge the auxiliary on 
the car when the hose is coupled and the angle- 
cocks tttrned so as to allow the compressed air to 
flow into the train line on this car from the engine? 

A. A cross-over pipe from the main train line couples 
to the triple at IF (Fig. i). The pressure from the train 
line passes into the triple at \V, through port c as indicated 
by the arrow into cavity B; thence through the feed 
ports m and n into the chamber where the slide valve 
moves and out into the auxiliary at Y. 

Q. How long does the air continue to flow into 
the auxiliary ? 

A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater 
than that in the auxiliary, that is, until the pressures 
are equal on the two sides of the triple piston 5. 

Q. How are the two sides of the piston referred 
to? 

A. The lower side, having train-line pressure on it, 
is called the train-line side of the piston, and the upper 
side, having auxiliary pressure on it, the auxiliary or 
slide-valve side. 



28 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What is necessary to cause piston 5 (Fig. 1) 
to move from release position ? 

A. Any reduction of train-line pressure ; a break in 
the hose ; the use of his valve by the engineer to make 
a train-line reduction. 

Q. If a reduction of train-line pressure is made, 
how does the triple respond ? 

A. Auxiliary pressure now being greater forces the 
triple piston down. 

Q. What two things does the piston do when it 
starts to move down ? 

A. It closes the feed grooves m and n and moves the 
graduating valve from its seat. 

Q. Does the slide valve move as soon as the 
piston ? 

A. No, not until the lug above 18 (Fig. 1) is drawn 
down far enough to rest against the slide valve. 

Q. What does the slide valve do as soon as the 
lug strikes and moves it down ? 

A. It first closes the exhaust port g which in release 
position connected the brake cylinder with the atmos- 
phere through X, d y e, jf, #, h and h 

Q. How far down does the triple piston travel ? 

A. Until the projecting stem of the piston strikes 
the stem 8 held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. 2). 

Q. When these stems touch, how does the slide 
valve stand ? 

A. Port p of the slide valve is in front of port /, 
and, as the graduating valve was pulled from its seat 
when the piston first moved, the auxiliary pressure is 
now free to pass into the slide valve through port I, 



Functions of the Triple. 29 

called the service or graduating port, which leads into 
port p. The air passes through ports l,p,p<>f,f, and 
out through X to the brake cylinder. 

Q. How long does the graduating valve remain 
off its seat so as to allow auxiliary pressure to flow 
to the brake cylinder ? 

A. We reduced the train-line pressure to allow the 
greater auxiliary pressure to move the piston down and 
open the service or graduating port p between the auxil- 
iary and cylinder. Just as long as the auxiliary pressure 
is greater, the piston will stay down and the graduating 
valve remain unseated. As the auxiliary pressure ex- 
pands into the brake cylinder it gradually becomes less 
until, when the train-line pressure becomes enough 
greater than that in the auxiliary to overcome the fric- 
tion on the packing ring 12 (Fig. 3), the piston auto- 
matically moves back and seats the graduating valve. 

Q. Does the slide valve move ? 
A. No, not now. 

Q. Why not'? 

A. The train-line pressure was just strong enough 
to overcome the friction on the packing ring 1 2 , move 
the piston back, and close the graduating valve. With 
the ports all closed the piston would also have to com- 
press the air in the auxiliary to go back any farther. 
Then, too, the pressure left in the auxiliary acting to 
force the slide valve on its seat produces a friction, if the 
valve were moved, that the train-line pressure as it stands 
is not sufficiently strong to overcome. 

Q. How do the auxiliary and train-line press- 
ures now stand ? 

A. Practically equal, although the auxiliary pressure 
had to be a trifle less to allow the triple piston to be 
moved back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 



30 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. The brake is now partially applied and the 
triple is on what is termed lap position ; what must 
be done to apply the brake harder ? 

A. Another reduction of train-line pressure must be 
made. 

Q. How does this set the brake tighter ? 

A. The auxiliary pressure once more being stronger 
than that on the train line forces the triple piston down 
until it is again stopped by the graduating post. This 
movement is just sufficient to unseat the graduating 
valve, the slide valve remaining where it was with its 
service port p (Fig. 2) in front of the brake cylinder. 
About the same amount of air pressure passes from the 
auxiliary to the cylinder that was taken from the train 
line, and the piston once more having a trifle more 
pressure on the train line than on the auxiliary side move? 
back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 

Q. How long can these train-line reductions con- 
tinue to be made and cause the brake to set harder ? 

A. Until the pressures have finally equalized be- 
tween the auxiliary and the brake cylinder. 

Q. After the auxiliary and brake-cylinder press- 
tires were equal, would the brake set any harder if 
all train-line pressure were thrown to the atmos- 
phere ? 

A. No ; when the brakes are full set the auxiliary 
and brake-cylinder pressures are equal, and a further re- 
duction of train-line pressure would only be a waste of 
air that the pump would have to replace in order to re- 
lease the brakes. 

Q. If a further train-line reduction were made 
after the brake was full set, would piston 5 (Fig* /) 



Functions of the Triple. 31 

move any farther than until the piston and 
graduating post touched? 

A. Yes ; the spring 9 could not withstand the auxil- 
iary pressure, as it is so much in excess of the reduced 
train-line pressure, and the piston would move down 
until it seated on gasket 11. In this position there 
would be a direct connection across the end of the slide 
valve between the auxiliary and brake cylinder, but the 
brake would not set any tighter, as the auxiliary and 
brake- cylinder pressures were already equal. 

Q* The brake is now full set. What is neces- 
sary to release it ? 

A. It is necessary to get the pressure on the train- 
line side of the triple piston greater than that on its 
auxiliary side. 

Q. How is this done ? 

A. By moving the handle of the engineer's valve so 
as to connect the pressure of ninety pounds, stored in the 
large main reservoir on the engine, w T ith the train line. 
Air flowing from the main reservoir into the train line 
causes the pressure on the train-line side of the triple 
piston to be sufficiently strong to overcome auxiliary 
pressure and force the triple piston to release position. 

Q. When the triple is forced to release position 
the slide and graduating valves are carried with it. 
What two port openings are made in this position f 

A. One between the train line and auxiliary through 
the feed ports m and n (Fig. 1) ; and one from the brake 
cylinder to the atmosphere through ports d, e, /, g, h 
and k. The triple is in release as shown in the cut. 

Q. We 7iotice that the feed grooves m and n {Fig. 
1) are very small. How long would it take to charge 
an auxiliary from zero to seventy pounds with a 



32 Air- Brake Catechism. 

constant pressure of seventy pounds on the t^ain 
line, using the triple now sent out ? 

A. About seventy seconds ; and occasionally a little 
longer. 

Q. Will it charge more quickly than this with 
a greater pressure than seventy pounds on the train 
line? 

A. Yes. 

Q Had we a train of fifteen cars, could we 
charge the fifteen auxiliaries as fast as we could 
one? 

A. No, because we now have fifteen feed grooves 
in the triples drawing air from the train line, and 
the pump cannot compress air fast enough to keep 
the train-line pressure at seventy pounds. 

Q. Why not make these feed grooves larger so 
as to charge the auxiliaries more quickly ? 

A. The purpose is to make the grooves sufficiently 
small that on a long train the auxiliaries will charge 
alike. On a long train there is a tendency for the head 
auxiliaries to charge faster than the rear ones, if the 
triple feed grooves are larger than those now used. 

Q What is likely to happen if some auxiliaries 
charge faster than others ? 

A. As the air is fed from the main reservoir back 
into the train line until those pressures are equal, and 
as the pump will not, on a long train, supply air as fast 
as the triple feed grooves take it from the train line, it 
follows that the auxiliaries which charge the slower will 
continue to feed from the train line and cause a reduction 
that will set some of the head brakes. 

Q. So far we have spoken of the action of the 
plain triple only in the service application. What 



Functions oe the Triple. 33 

is the difference between the service and the emer- 
gency ? 

A. In service the brakes set gradually, while in 
emergency they go on very suddenly. 

, Q. A gradual reduction sets the brakes in ser- 
vice. What kind of a reduction is necessary to set 
the brakes in emergency ? 

A. A sudden reduction. 

Q. Describe the emergency action of the plain 
triple. 

A. The suddenness of the train-line reduction causes 
piston 5 (Fig. 4) to move down suddenly, striking the 
stem 8 a quick, sharp blow which the graduating spring 
9 is not stiff enough to withstand. The piston travels 
down full stroke and bottoms on gasket 1 1 . This is emer- 
gency position, and the slide valve has been drawn down 
so that air coming through Y from the auxiliary passes 
across the end of the slide valve directly into the large 
port / leading to the brake cylinder without first going 
through the small service port p in the slide valve, as it 
did in the service position. 

Q. Why does the brake set more quickly ? 

A. Because the air goes direct to the cylinder through 
a larger port than is used in service. 

Q. Do we gain any more pressure with the plain 
triple in emergency than in full service ? 

A. No ; in both cases the auxiliary pressure equal- 
izes with that in the brake cylinder, but in emergency 
these pressures equalize more quickly because of the air 
reaching the brake cylinder through a larger port. 

Q. Are plain triples still used ? 



34 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Yes, but they are used almost entirely on engines 
and tenders. Their use on cars is confined principally 
to those equipments put on before the quick-action triple 
was introduced. 

Q Is a plain triple valve always used on tenders? 

A. No ; the present practice is to use a plain triple 
valve on the tenders of freight and switch engines ; on 
the tenders of passenger engines a quick-action triple 
valve is being used. 

Q. What has led to the use of a quick-action 
valve on passenger-engine tenders ? 

A, The general introduction of the high-speed brake 
in passenger, mail, and express service is responsible for 
this practice having become general, although some 
roads have been using quick-action triples on their 
tenders in both freight and passenger service for some 
time. 



. 



PLATE IV.— PLAIN TRIPLE VALVE SHOWN IN RELEASE, SERVICE, LAP, AND EMERGENCY POSITIONS. 



HflllMi 



Wf 







. i.— Old Style Plain Triple Valve, Release Position. Fig. 2.— New Style Plain Triple Valve, Service Position. Fig. 3.— New Style Plain Triple Valve, Lap Position. Fig. 4.— New Style Plain Triple Valve, Emergency Position. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE QUICK-ACTION 
TRIPLE. 

Q. When and by whom was the quick-action 
triple invented? 

A. In 1887, by George Westinghouse, Jr. 

Q. We already had the plain triple. Why was 
the quick-action triple necessary ? 

A. The plain triple was satisfactory so long as only 
the service application was used, but not so with the 
emergency application on a long train. In this latter 
case the head brakes were full set so much sooner than 
those on the rear, that the slack of the train ran ahead 
and often did great damage. 

Q. What two important advantages ure gained 
by the quick-action triple ?■ 

A. We are enabled to set the brakes throughout the 
train before the slack has a chance to run ahead and do 
damage, and not only does the brake set more quickly in 
emergency, but it is also set harder, thus permitting a 
quicker stop and a higher safe speed for trains. 

Q. In the use of the service application, what is 
the difference between the action of the plain and 
the quick-action triples ? 

A. None whatever ; their action and the parts em- 
ployed are identical, excepting the additional ports placed 
in the slide valve of the quick-action triple, which are 
used only in emergency. 



36 Air-Brake Catechism 

Q. Will these two kinds of triples scattered 
through a train work together properly in service ? 
A. Perfectly o 

Q. Name the different parts of the qtiick-action 
triple not found in the plain triple, 

A. The strainer 16 (Fig* 5). The additional port s 
in the slide valve and the removed corner of the slide valve 
shown in Fig. 10. 8 is the emergency piston. 10 is the 
emergency or, as it is more commonly called, the rubber- 
seated valve. 15 is called the train-line check, also the 
emergency check. 

Q. Of zv hat u$e is the strainer i6 ) Plate V? 

A. Strainer 16 is to keep dirt from getting into the 
triple in such a way as to close the small feed ports i 
and h. 

Q. Of zuhat use is piston 8 ? 

A. If the triple is moved so as to allow auxiliary 
pressure to get into port t on top of piston 8, this piston 
will be forced down, thereby forcing the emergency valve 
10 from its seat. 

Q. What is done when the rubber-seated or 
emergency valve 10 {Fig. 8) is forced from its seat? 

A. All air escapes from cavity Y and allows train- 
line pressure to force the train-line check 15 from its 
seat. 

Q. Of what use is the check valve 75 ? 

A . If a hose breaks in the train line, the brakes would 
go full set on the whole train and, with no air in the 
txain line, were it not for the check valve 15, brake- 
cylinder pressure coming in at c would force valve 10 
from its seat and pass direct to the train line through 
cavity Fand out of the broken or parted hose. In such 
a case the brakes would not stay set. 



The Westinghouse Quick- Action Triple. 37 

Q. Explain the action of the quick-action triple 
in emergency. 

A. A quick train-line reduction causes the auxiliary 
pressure to force the triple piston out the full length of 
chamber h (Fig, <?), the graduating spring 22 being com- 
pressed on account of its inability to withstand the sudden 
blow from the triple piston. 

With the triple piston in the extreme position to the 
left, or that of emergency, port s of the slide valve is 
in front of port r, thus establishing a connection be- 
tween the auxiliary and brake cylinder. At the same 
time the removed corner of the slide valve, shown in Fig. 
10, is in front of port t leading to the top of the emer- 
gency piston 8. The auxiliary pressure forcing piston 
8 down unseats the emergency valve 10. This valve 
being unseated allows all pressure to escape from cavity 
Y. With no pressure in cavity Y to hold the train-line 
check to its seat, the train-line pressure under the check 
raises it and passes into cavity Y over seat of valve 10 to 
cavity X and out at c into the brake cylinder ; at the 
same time the auxiliary pressure is entering the cylinder 
through port r. As soon as the pressures equalize, piston 
8, valve 10, and check 15 go to their normal positions. 

Q. Of what use are Figs. 9 and 10 ? 

A. ,Fig. 10 gives a better idea of the location of the 
ports in the slide valve ; Fig. 9, the -location ot the ports 
in the bushing inside of which the slide valve works. 

Q. Name the parts. 

A. 26 (Fig. 5) is the drain plug; 16, the train-line 
strainer; 20, the graduating nut ; 2 1 , the graduating stem 
or post ; 22, the graduating spring ; 4, the triple piston ; 
;", the piston stem ; i and £, the feed ports ; 6, the slide- 
valve spring; 3, the slide valve; 7, the graduating 
valve ; w } the service or graduating port ; n, the exhaust 



38 Air-Brake Catechism. 

port ; s, the emergency port ; z y a continuation of the 
service port w; 15, the train-line or emergency check; 
12, the train-line check spring; 10, the emergency or 
rubber-seated valve ; 8, the emergency piston. The 
exhaust port^5> leads around outside the brass bushing to 
the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 9 by the dotted lines. 

Q. What views do Plate V represent f 
A. The triple valve in its four positions ; release, 
service, lap, and emergency positions. 

Q. We have seen that with the quick-action 
triple the brakes are set harder in emergency. Are 
brakes set in emergency any harder to release f 

A. They are with quick-action triples only. 

Q. Why ? 

A. With the quick-action triples air from the train 
line helps set the brakes in emergency, and the press- 
ures equalize higher ; therefore the train-line pressure 
must be made higher to overcome the auxiliary pressure 
and force the triple piston to release position. 

With the plain triple the pressures equalize at the 
same pressure as in service. 

Q. In Fig. 5 a packing ring 31 is shown in the 
emergency piston. Is this ring found in all quick- 
action triple valves ? 

A. It is in all modern passenger triples but not in 
freight valves. The small port in piston 8 is also found 
in passenger valves only. 

Q^, After a partial service application has been 
made, can we get the quick-action ? 

A. This depends on the amount of reduction that 
has been made in service and upon the piston travel. 
In no case can we gain as much after making even 
a small service reduction as w r e could if the sudden 



The Westinghouse Quick-Action Triple. 39 

reduction were made when the auxiliaries were fully 
charged and the brakes released. 

♦ After a light reduction a gain over the pressure 
obtained in full service can be made by going to 
emergency position if the piston travel is a fair length, 
but not with short travel. 

By using the emergency after a partial service 
application, even we made no gain of pressure, we 
would get the full service more quickly . 

Q. Hoiv quick must a reduction be made on 
the train line to throw a triple into quick action ? 

A. Faster than the auxiliary pressure can get to the 
brake cylinder through the service port in the slide 
valve. In this case the graduating spring will not hold 
the triple piston from traveling full stroke. 

Q. When a triple is thrown into quick action, 
which pressure, auxiliary or train line, reaches the 
brake cylinder first? 

A. Just a flash of auxiliary pressure reaches the 
cylinder as the service port in the slide valve passes the 
port leading to the cylinder, but the air from the train 
line reaches the cylinder first in any considerable 
volume, as the corner cut off from the slide valve allows 
the auxiliary pressure to strike piston 8 and force the 
rubber- seated valve 10 from its seat before port s comes 
in front of port r. 

Q. Why is port s {Figs. 8 and id), used in enter* 
gency, made smaller than port z, used in service, to let 
auxiliary pressure into the brake cylinder ? 

A. So as to hold the auxiliary pressure back in 
emergency and allow as much air as possible to enter the 
brake cylinder from the train line. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF 
THE TRIPLE. 

From what follows it may seem that a triple will get 
out of order under any slightest provocation. This how- 
ever is not true ; it is a constant source of wonder to see 
the fine action of triple valves which have little or poor 
care. A triple needs no more care than any other piece 
of mechanism to keep it doing first-class work. The 
aim of what follows is to bring out its possibilities. 

Q. What could wholly or partially stop the 
charging of an auxiliary f 

A. The strainer in the train line where the cross- 
over pipe leading to the triple joins the main train-line, 
or the strainer 16 in the triple (Fig. 5) being filled with 
dirt, scale, cinders or oil. Port i or k might be plugged, 
the triple might be cut out, or there might be a leak in 
the auxiliary which let the air out as fast as it came in. 

Q. If all auxiliaries did not charge equally fast y 
what would be the effect ? 

A. If we wish to apply the brakes very soon, the 
ones with the auxiliaries not fully charged would not re- 
spond to the first reduction. 

Q. Occasionally after coupling up •the hose in a 
train it is found that the brake on a car will not ap- 
ply in r 'espouse to a reduction of train-line pressure. 
What might be the trouble other than those just de- 
scribed? 

A. It sometimes happens that the switch crew is re- 
sponsible for such an occurrence. Sometimes when an 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 41 

air train is brought into a yard and the yard crew is in 
a hurry to " drill " the train with an engine not equipped 
with air, they do not always bleed the train in the 
proper manner. Instead of opening an angle cock and 
then bleeding all the reservoirs by hand, they put a 
piece of coal or wood under an arm of the release valve 
to do the work of holding the valve from its seat. In 
this way they save time for themselves but are a source 
of considerable bother to the ones who inspect the 
train. On account of the air escaping through a com- 
paratively large port, the leakage is not always de- 
tected without a careful examination. 

Q. Will any other trouble result from the 
strainers being corroded or dirty ? 

A. Yes ; we might not be able to make a sufficiently 
quick reduction on the triple piston to get quick action. 

Q. One triple going into quick action makes a 
sudden train-line reduction which starts the next 
triple, and that one the next, and so on throughout 
the train. If five or six ears together in the train 
were cut out, or had plain triples, or very dirty 
strainers] would the triples back of these go into 
quick action when the engineer made a sudden re- 
duction f 

A. No, on account of the action or friction in the 
passage of the sudden reduction through the six car 
lengths of pipe. The friction gradually destroys the 
suddenness of the reduction, and there is only a slight 
and gradual reduction on the train-line back of the cars. 
cut out. 

Q. What bad effect would follow if the engineer 
did not continue making a reduction ? 

A. The air coming ahead from the back of the train 
would kick off the head brakes. 



42 Air- Brake Catechism. 

Q, Could these brakes in the back of the train 
be applied? 

A. Yes, in service but not in emergency. 

Q. Water sometimes collects in cavity ij (Fig. 5) 
of the triple. Where does it come from? 
A. It works back from the pump. 

Q. What bad effect will water have in this 
place ? 

A. It is likely to freeze in winter and block the flow 
of air through the triple. 

Q. What should be done in such a case ? 

A. Apply burning waste and when thawed remove 
the drain plug 26 to remove the water or the trouble 
will recur. 

Q. What would be the effect of a weak or broken 
graduating spring ? 

A. We would have nothing to stop the triple piston 
when it reached service position, and it would move on 
to emergency position. 

Q. If one triple goes into quick action, will the 
rest go ? 

A. Yes, as a sudden reduction is made on the train 
line through the emergency ports of the triple in this 
case. This sudden reduction starts the next and that 
the next and so on. 

Q. Will a zveak or broken graduating spring 
always throw the triples into quick action ? 

A. No, only on a short train. 

Q. Why not. on a long train ? 

A. On a short train, with a gradual train-line reduc- 
tion, air is drawn from the train line faster than the 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 43 

auxiliary pressure can get to the brake cylinder through 
the service port of the slide valve. When the auxiliary 
pressure is enough greater than that in the train line, it 
forces the triple piston to emergency position, as there is 
no graduating spring to stop it. 

On a long train, it takes longer to make a correspond- 
ing reduction on account of the larger volume of air in 
the train line. This gives the auxiliary pressure longer 
to pass into the cylinder, and as a result the train-line and 
auxiliary pressures keep about equal and the triple piston 
will not move to emergency position unless a sudden re- 
duction is made. 

Q. How many air cars must there be in a train 
so that a broken or weak graduating spring will not 
affect the service application ? 

A. Usually not less than six or seven; with more 
than this number, if otherwise the triples work properly, 
the graduating springs could be removed from all triples 
and no bad effect be noticed. 

Q. What two things will cause the triples to go 
into quick action regardless of the length of the 
train ? 

A. A sticky triple or a broken graduating pin. 
(The one which fastens the graduating valve to the 
piston stem as shown by the dotted lines, Fig. 5 . ) 

Q. Why will a sticky triple throw the brakes 
into emergency ? 

A. Because the triple does not respond to a light re- 
duction. When it does move, it jumps, and the sudden 
blow compresses the graduating spring and the triple is 
in the quick-action position. This car starts the rest as 
before explained. 

Q. Why zvill a broken graduating pin throw the 
brakes into emergency ? 



44 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A Because with this pin broken there is nothing to 
move the graduating valve from its seat when the triple 
piston moves and the auxiliary pressure is acting to hold 
it on its seat. When a train-line reduction is made and 
the triple assumes service position, no air can leave the 
auxiliary and pass through the graduating or service 
port of the slide valve, as the graduating valve is on its 
seat. When sufficient train-line reduction has been 
made so that the graduating spring cannot withstand 
the auxiliary pressure acting on the piston, the triple 
goes to the quick-action position, and we get the quick 
action on this car and consequently on the rest as before 
explained. 

Q. Which of these three troubles — weak gradti- 
ating spring, broken graduating pin or sticky 
triple — will usually be found to exist if the brakes 
go into emerge7icy with a service redtiction ? 

A. A sticky triple, and this usually means that the 
triple causing the trouble has had poor care. 

Q. Shall we get the same result regardless of the 
location of the faulty triple in the train f 
A. Yes ; if one starts, all do. 

Q. What is the probable trouble with a brake 
which, when set in service, will sometimes remai7t 
set and sometimes release ? 

A. A dirty slide valve which sometimes seats prop- 
erly and at others not ; in the latter case auxiliary press- 
ure escapes to the atmosphere through the exhaust port 
and allows train- line pressure to force this triple to re- 
lease position. 

Q t How may this defect be remedied ? 

A. Remove the triple piston and attached parts, 
clean carefully, loosen the packing ring without remov- 
ing and rub a little oil on the slide valve with the finger. 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple 45 

Q. Why not pour on the oil? 
A. Too much oil is bad, as it collects dust, which 
with the oil forms gum . This causes a triple to stick, 

Q. What effect will a leak i7i the train line have 
if the brakes are not set ? 

A, It will simply cause the pump to work to sup- 
ply it. 

Q. What effect if the brakes are set ? 
A. It will cause them to leak on harder, 

Q. Will the leak cattse only the brake on that car 
to leak on, or all? 

A. All, as the train line is continuous through the 
train. 

Q. What effect will a leak in an auxiliary have 
if a brake is released? 

A. It will keep the pump at work the same as a 
train-line leak. 

Q. What effect if the brakes are applied? 

Ac It will leak the brake off on the car where the 
leak is and then, drawing air from the train line through 
the feed ports, it will gradually set the other brakes 
tighter. 

Q. There are a number of leaks in the triple 
zuhich will cause a blow at its exhaust port. Name 
the two most likely to produce this effect. 

A. A leaky slide valve or a leaky rubber-seated 
valve (Fig. 5). 

Q. How can we tell which of these is causing the 
trouble ? 

A. As the exhaust port on the slide valve is always 
in communication with the atmosphere, whether the 



46 Air-Brake Catechism . 

brakes are applied or released, a leak 011 the face of the 
slide valve will cause a constant blow. 

Q How else can we tell if it is the slide valve 
that causes the trouble ? 

A. Apply the brake, and if auxiliary pressure is 
leaking away across the slide valve, the brake will 
generally release. 

Q. How can we tell if the trouble is with the 
rubber-seated valve ? 

A. The rubber-seated valve will cause a blow at the 
exhaust only when the brake is released. 

Q. Why? 

A. The rubber-seated valve 10 (Fig. 5) leaking will 
allow the pressure to leave cavity Y. The train-line 
pressure then raises check 15 and passes through cavity 
Y across the rubber-seated valve, through cavity x, ports 
c and r, into the exhaust cavity n of the slide valve and 
out to the atmosphere through port p. When the brake 
is applied, port n in the slide valve is closed to port r, 
consequently the blow stops. 

Q. Where does the air which is leaking across 
the rubber-seated valve go after the brake is ap- 
plied? 

A. Direct to the brake cylinder through r, and this 
brake continues to set harder. 

Q. Why is a leaky rubber-seated valve more 
likely to slide the wheels on a car in a long train 
than in a short one ? 

A. After the brakes are applied, this leak allows the 
train-line and brake-cylinder pressures to equalize. With 
a long train line there is a much greater volume of air, 
and these pressures will equalize higher. 



Peculiarities axd Troubles of the Triple. 47 

Q. Hozu else can we tell if the rubber-seated 
valve leaks ? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe 
from the train line to the triple after everything is 
charged : if the rubber-seated valve leaks, it will draw 
air from the train line ; with the cut-out cock closed, 
this leak is not being supplied, and the reduction will 
cause the brake on this car to apply. 

Q. Give another symptom which indicates & 
leaky rubber-seated valve. 

A. The leak above the check 15 caused the check to 
rise to supply it, and when the cavity is again charged 
the check closes. It sometimes rises and closes so fast 
as to make a loud buzzing sound. 

Q. What is usually the cause of leaking in & 
rubber-seated valve ? 

A. Dirt on the seat, a poor seat caused by wear, the 
use of oil on the quick-action part of the triple, or using 
too much oil in the brake cylinder, which will work into 
the triple and cause the rubber to decay. 

Q. If dirt is the source of the trouble, how may 
it be removed without taking the triple apart? 

A. Set the brake by opening the angle cock after 
closing the cock at the other end of the car. If there is 
dirt on the valve, it may be blown off in this way. 

Q. What besides the slide and rubber-seated 
valves will cause a blozv at the exhaust port of the 
triple ? 

A. Gasket 14 (Fig. 5) leaking between e and cavity X, 
or the gasket leaking between the brake cylinder and 
auxiliary w T here the triple is bolted to the cylinder. On 
freight equipments there is a pipe which runs inside the 
auxiliary to the brake cylinder ; this pipe leaking will 
also cause a blow 



4& Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Are these leaks common f 

A. On the contrary they are very uncommon. The 
TdIow is almost invariably due to a leaky slide or emer- 
gency valve. 

Q. What ejject would the leaking of graduating 
valve 7 {Fig. 5) have ? 

A. The action produced by such a leak is uncertain 
and depends greatly on the conditions connected with it. 
When the brake is applied, the triple assumes lap posi- 
tion after the auxiliary pressure is a trifle less than that 
in the train line. If the graduating valve leaks, the 
auxiliary pressure gradually reduces, and the train-line 
pressure forces the triple piston and slide valve back 
until the blank on the face of the slide valve between 
ports 2 and n is in front of port r. If the graduating 
valve does leak, no more air can leave port z in this posi- 
tion, and the slide valve stops. This blank space is only 
a trifle wider than port r, so if the valve is in good con- 
dition and works smoothly, the brake should not release ; 
but if it works hard, it is likely to jump a little when it 
moves, and open the exhaust port. 

Q. Give a rule by which to tell how a leaky 
graduating valve will act. 

A. If the triple is in proper condition, a leaky grad- 
uating valve should not release a brake. If the triple is 
a trifle sticky, a brake is likely to be released. A leaky 
slide valve or a slight auxiliary leak in combination with 
a leaking graduating valve will release a brake. The 
action also depends upon the condition of the triple- 
piston packing ring which if comparatively loose will 
permit train-line pressure to feed into the auxiliary 
reservoir as fast as its pressure escapes. If train-line and 
auxiliary pressures remain equal, the triple-piston is not 
affected, and the leakage by the graduating valve would 
not release the brake. 



PLATE V-QUICK-ACTION TRIPLE VALVE SHOWN IN RELEASE, SERVICE, LAP, AND EMERGENCY POSITIONS. 





:ylinoer Fig _ ^ — Slide Valve Bushing. 




Fig. io,— Slide Valve. 



Fig. 5.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, Release Position. Fig. 6.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, Service Position. Fig. /.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, Lap Position. Fig. 8.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, 



Emergency Position. 



WESTINGHOUSK FREIGHT EQUIPMENT, 

Q. Name the different parts of the equipment. 

A. 3 (Fig. 1 1 ) is the piston sleeve and head , 9 the release 
spring, 4 the front cylinder head, 2 the cylinder body, 
A the leakage groove, 7 the packing leather, 8 the 
expander ring, 6 the follower plate which holds the 
packing leather 7 to its place, B the pipe connecting the 
triple valve and brake cylinder, and 15 the gasket which 
makes a tight joint between the auxiliary, triple, and 
pipe B leading to the brake cylinder. 

Q. Explain the use of the release spring 9 
(Fig. 11). 

A. When the brake is applied, air is put into the 
cylinder 2 through pipe B ) and the piston 3 is forced to 
the left, compressing the release springe When the air 
is released from the brake cylinder, the duty of the 
release spring is to force the piston to release position as 
shown in the illustration. 

Q. What enters the sleeve 3 {Fig 11) f 

A. The push rod through which the braking 
power is transmitted to the brake rigging. 

Q. Of what tise is the expander ring 8 ? 

A. To keep the flange of the packing leather 7 
against the walls of the cylinder. The expander ring 
is a round spring. 

Q. Of what use is the packing leather 7 ? 



Westinghouse Freight Equipment. 51 

Ac As air enters the brake cylinder, the flange of the 
packing leather is forced against the walls of the cylin- 
der, thus making a tight joint to prevent the passage of 
the air by the piston and out to the atmosphere through 
the open end of the cylinder at the left. If the leather 
leaks, the brake will leak off. 

Q. Of what use is the leakage groove A {Fig. 11)? 

A. The piston as shown in the cut is in release 
position. If on a long train there should be any leak on 
the train line that would draw a triple piston out far 
enough to close the exhaust port in the slide valve, and 
there were a leak into the brake cylinder, the pressure 
would gradually accumulate and force the piston out, 
causing the shoes to drag on the wheels were it not for 
the leakage groove. This will allow any small leakage 
into the brake cylinder to pass through the groove and 
out of the other end of the cylinder to the atmosphere. 

If the brake connections are taken up so short that the 
piston will not travel by the leakage groove when the 
brake is set, the air will blow past the piston through 
the groove and release the brake on this car. In this 
case, were it not for the groove, the wheels would be 
slid. 

Q. What is the duty of the pipe B ? 

A. When the brake is applied, air passes from the 
auxiliary through the triple and pipe B to the cylinder. 

When the brake is released, air passes from the cylin- 
der through pipe B, the triple exhaust port and out to 
the atmosphere, or, if a retainer is used, it passes from the 
triple into the retainer pipe, which is screwed into the 
triple exhaust, and out of the retainer according to the 
position of its handle. 

Q. Of what use is the auxiliary 10 (Fig. //) f 
A. This is where the supply of air is stored with 
which to apply the brake on this one cat . 



52 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What is the valve on top of the auxiliary ? 

A. It is called the release valve. By lifting on the 
handle of this valve the pressure in the auxiliary 10 may 
be released. If this valve leaks, after the brake is 
applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure t thus made 
will release the brake. 

Q. What use has the plug n ? 

A. To drain off any accumulation of water in the 
auxiliary. 

Q. What harm will ensue if gasket 15 leaks ? 

A. The leak may be from the auxiliary to the 
atmosphere or from the auxiliary into pipe B leading to 
the brake cylinder. After the brake was applied, the 
reduction of auxiliary pressure caused by this leak 
would allow the train-line pressure to force this triple to 
release position and release this brake. The leak would 
then draw air from the train line through the triple feed 
ports, making a train-line reduction that with any other 
leaks on the train would help to creep on the other 
brakes. 

Q. Is the freight-car equipment different from 
the air-brake equipment on the passenger car ? 

A. It is smaller, but the principle of operation is the 
same. In a passenger equipment the pipe B does not 
run through the auxiliary, and the auxiliary and brake 
cylinder are not fastened together. The appearance is 
different, but, aside from size, they are alike. 

Q. Why has the oil plug been removed from the 
brake cylinder ? 

A. So that it will be necessary to take the cylinder 
apart to clean it. Pouring oil into the oil hole is respon- 
sible for the ruination of rubber seats in emergency 
valve*. 



Westinghouse Freight Equipment. 53 

Q. How many kinds of freight equipments are 
there and with what weights of cars are they used ? 

A. 6, 8 and 10-inch equipment ; 6-inch is used on 
freight cars the light weights of which are less than 
15,000 pounds; 8-inch between 15,000 and 40,000 
pounds ; and 10-inch when the light weight exceeds 
40,000 pounds. 

Q. Fig. 11 shows a standard equipment for 
freight cars ; are they ever furnished in any other 
form f 

A. Yes ; the space limitation on some cars forbids 
the use of the combined equipment illustrated in Fig. 
11. In such cases, what is known as the detached 
equipment is used, and the brake cylinder and auxiliary 
reservoir are connected by a suitable pipe. 

In very exceptional cases two cylinders are used in 
connection with one reservoir and one triple valve, but 
the principle of operation remains the same. The 
usual piston stroke is twelve inches, but this is reduced 
to eight inches where twin cylinders are used, and in 
some special combined and detached equipments. 



PISTON TRAVEL. 

Q. What determines the amoztnt of travel a 
piston will have? 

Ac The slack in the brake rigging and any lost mo- 
tion in the car brought out by the application of the 
brake. 

Q. Hozv is the piston travel usually adjusted? 

A. By changing the position of the dead truck 
levers. 

O. Which is called the dead lever of a truck ? 
A. The one held stationary at the top with a pin. 

Q. What is the other lever on the truck called? 
A. The live lever. 

Q. What is the lever fastened to the piston 
usually called ? 

A. The piston lever. 

Q. What is the corresponding lever at the other 
end of the cylinder in a passenger equipment called? 

A. The cylinder lever. 

0. Are these levers ever spoken of differently ? 

A. Yes, sometimes both are referred to as cylinder 
levers. 

Q. In passenger equipment there is sometimes a 
lever between the cylinder levers and truck levers, 
one end of which is connected to the hand brake and 



Piston Travel. 55 

the other to the live truck lever. What is this lever 
usually called? 

A. The Hodge, or floating, lever ; the latter name is 
the one more commonly used. 

Q. We have seen in studying the triple valve 
that a five-pounfl train-line reduction caused the 
triple to put five pounds from the auxiliary into the 
brake cylinder. How much pressure does this give 
us in the brake cylinder ? 

A. It depends upon the piston travel. It may be 
more or less than five pounds ; it might be five pounds. 

Q. Explain this answer. 

A. We notice that the auxiliary is much larger than 
the brake cylinder, and five pounds taken from the larger 
space and forced into a smaller will give a greater press- 
ure than that put in ; but it must be remembered that a 
small part of the air put into the cylinder goes through 
the leakage groove before the piston gets by and closes 
it. There is still another point. If no air were put into 
the brake cylinder and the piston were pulled out when 
the exhaust port was closed, a vacuum would be formed. 
When the air enters the cylinder it must first fill this 
space to atmospheric pressure before a gauge placed on 
the cylinder would begin to show any pressure. The 
longer the travel, the more air it would take to fill the 
space and the less pressure there would be for the five 
pounds put into it. 

Q. Which would give a higher pressure for a 
given reduction, long or short piston travel? 
A. Short travel. 

Q. Why? 

A. Because with a short travel the same amount of 
air would be expanded into a smaller space. 



56 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. With the freight equipment how much brake- 
cylinder pressure do we get for a seven-pound 
train-line reduction with a 6 and a g-inch travel? 

A. Referring to the table we see that we get 
seventeen and one-half pounds with the 6 inch, and 
eight pounds with the 9-inch travel. 





PISTON TRAVEL AND RESULTANT CYLINDER PRESSURE * 


TRAIN PIPE 










REDUCTION. 














I 




4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


IO II 
















j PISTON NOT 


7 


25 


23 


I7l 


13 


10J 


8 


I ENTIRELY OUT. 


10 


49 


43 


34 


29 


23i 


i9i 


17 


14 


13 


57 


5<> 


44 


37* 


33 


29 


24 


20 


16 


. . 


54 


47* 


4 1 * 


35 


29 


24 


19 






5 1 


47 


40 


3^i 


32 


22 








50 


47* 


44 


39 


25 












47 


45 



*Air Brake Men's 1896 Proceedings. 

The above table is the result of tests made with a freight equip- 
ment. Each result is the average of several tests, and the brake was 
in good condition. There are two spaces where it says " Piston not 
entirely out," where no brake-cylinder pressure is given for a seven- 
pound train-line reduction. This does not mean there was no press- 
ure there, as there must have been or the piston could not have gone 
out and compressed the cylinder release spring. The ordinary air 
gauge does not register any pressure less than five pounds, and with 
a seven-pound train-line reduction the pressure gotten in a ten- or 
eleven-inch piston travel is less than five pounds. 

Seventy pounds train-line pressure was used in making these tests. 



Q. With a sixteen-pound reduction ? 

A. Fifty-four pounds with the 6 inch, and thirty- 
five pounds with the 9 inch. 

Q> With a twenty-two-pound reduction f 



Piston Travel. 57 

A. After the sixteen-pound reduction, the brake did 
not set any harder on the 6-inch travel because the 
auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized at that 
point, and this brake was full set. With the 9-inch travel 
the air from the auxiliary had 4 inches more space into 
which to expand, and the brake was not full set until 
a twenty-two-pound reduction had been made, giving 
forty-seven and one-half pounds brake-cylinder pressure. 

Q. What does this show ? 

A. That a brake with a short piston travel is more 
powerful than one with a long travel ; that a brake with 
the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized can- 
not be applied any harder by a further reduction of train- 
line pressure, and that if piston travel varied in a long 
train, between 4 and 11 inches, there would be no uni- 
formity in the braking power applied in the different 
parts of a train. 

Q. What would be the pressure, with the travel 
as given in the table, were the brakes set in emer- 
gency ? 

A. 4 in., 5 in., 6 in., 7 in. piston travel. 

62 61 59 \ 58 \ emergency pressure. 
8 in., 9 in., 10 in., n in. piston travel. 
57i 5 6 i 55i 55 emergency pressure. 

Q. Why do the bra,kes set harder with the quick- 
action triple in emergency than in service ? 

A. Because in the emergency application the quick- 
action triples put air from both the auxiliary and train 
line into the brake cylinder. 

Q. Can full emergency pressure be obtained after 
having made a light train-line reduction in service 
application f 

A. No, 



.58 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Can any gain be made ? 

A. Yes, if the reduction has not been too great. By 
referring to the table we see that a thirteen-pound reduc- 
tion sets a 4-inch travel brake in full. If emergency were 
now used this brake would not set any harder, while we 
might gain a little on the long travel. With a given 
train-line reduction, we would gain most on the car with 
the long travel, but on neither would we get full emer- 
gency pressure. 

Q, Can a train be handled smoothly with uneven 
travel throughout the train ? 

A. Not as smoothly as when the travel is more uni- 
form. 

Q. What will be the effect with short travel at 
the head of the train and long at the rear ? 

A. Having more braking power at the head would 
cause the slack to run ahead, causing a jar. 

Q. What if the short travel were at the rear of 
the train ? 

A. The tendency would be for the slack to run back 
and break the train in two, especially if the train were 
on a knoll. 

Q. How else would the piston travel affect the 
smoothness of the braking? 

A. In releasing the brakes. 

Q. Suppose we had a train half of which had 4- 
incH travel and the other half 9 inch, which brakes 
would start releasing first if the engineer had made 
a ten-pound train-line reduction and then, wishing 
to release the brakes, increased the train-line press- 
ure? 

A. They should all start about the same time, but 



Piston Travel. 59 

the tendency is always for head brakes to start releasing 
first if the travel is about alike, as the air enters the 
train line from the main reservoir at the front of the 
train, and the pressure is naturally a little higher here 
when recharging. 

Q. Is the same true after a thirteen-pound 
reduction ? 
A. Yes. 
Q. After a twenty -two-pound reduction ? 

A. No ; the long travel brakes will start releasing 
first. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Referring to the table we see that the 4-inch 
travel was not applied any harder after a thirteen-pound 
reduction had been made ; but the 9-inch travel con- 
tinued applying harder until a twenty- two-pound reduc- 
tion of train-line pressure had been made. With the 
brakes full set we have fifty-seven pounds ^pressure in 
the auxiliary and cylinder of the 4-inch travel car and 
forty-seven and one-half on the long. Train-line press- 
ure has to overcome auxiliary pressure to force the 
triple pistons to release position, and it is easier to over- 
come forty-seven and one-half than fifty-seven pounds ; 
hence the triple piston on the long travel car will go to 
release position with less of an increase of train-line 
pressure than will the triple on the short travel car. 

Q. State the general rule in regard to this ques- 
tion. 

A. If reductions have not been continued after cars 
with the short piston travel have been full set, all brakes 
should start releasing about the same time ; but if the 
reductions of train-line pressure are continued after the 
short travel brakes are full set, an increase of train-line 
pressure will start the long travel brakes releasing first. 



6o Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q„ If a long and a short travel brake are started 
releasing at the same time, which will get off first 
and why ? 

A. The short travel, because the piston has a shorter 
distance to go and there is a less volume of air to be 
gotten rid of through the exhaust port of the triple. 

Q. We have two cars with the same piston travel 
What is the trouble if both are started releasing at 
the same time and one gets off quicker tha?t the 
other ? 

A. The release spring in one cylinder is weaker 01 
the cylinder corroded. 

Q. What harm would it do to take a piston 
travel ip to 2 i7tches ? 

A. The piston could not get by the leakage groove, 
and the brake would not stay set. 

Q. What harm would it do to let the travel out 
to 1 j inches ? 

A. The piston would strike the head, and we would 
have no brake on that car. 

Q. Does having very long piston travel in a 
train require any more work of a pump in descend- 
ing grades ? 

A. Yes; the air has to be used more expansively, and 
the pump will have to supply more air in recharging. 

Q s If we try the piston travel on a car when 
standing, will we find it to be the same as when run- 
ning? 

A. No. 

Q. Why not ? 



Piston Travel. 6i 

A. For several reasons: the shoes pull down farther 
on the wheels when running ; the king bolts being loose 
allow the trucks to be pulled together ; spring in brake 
beams, loose boxes in jaws, loose brasses on journals, 
the give in old cars, and any lost motion that will throw 
slack into the brake rigging ; all these will cause the 
piston travel while running to be greater than that 
while standing. 

Q. If the piston travel is adjusted when a car is 
loaded, will it remain the same when the car is 
light? 

A. It will, if the brakes are hung from the sand 
plank, but most brakes are hung from the truck bolster 
or the sill of the car. When the car is loaded, the truck 
springs are compressed and the shoes set lower on the 
wheels. When the car is unloaded, the truck springs 
raise the bolster and car body, thus raising the shoes so 
that there is less clearance between the brake shoes and. 
wheels c This shortens the piston travel, as the piston 
does not have to travel so far to bring the shoes up to 
the wheels o 

Q, How could you tell the piston travel on a car 
if it had no air in it ? 

Ac This can be told on freight cars where the hand 
brake and air brake move the push rod in the cylinder in 
the same direction when applying the brake. To tell 
the travel, shove the push rod into the cylinder until it 
bottoms. Make a mark on the push rod and set the 
hand brake. The distance the mark on the push rod 
has moved will be, approximately, the piston travel when 
using air. 

Q. How much variation is permissible? 

A. The smaller the amount of variation the better, 
but in road service it is the aim to keep piston travel 
between 5 and 8 inches. 



62 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Is there any device which will keep a constant 
piston travel on a car without any outside aid ? 
A. Yes, a slack adjuster. 

Q. What slack adjuster is in most general use f 
A. The American slack adjuster. 

Q. Is this better than a hand adjustment ? 

A. Yes, because it does its work when the car is in 
motion, and true travel is had because all lost motion is 
brought out when the car is in motion. 

Q. What is the most satisfactory travel for 
general use f 

A. Between 6 and 7 inches. 

Q. Where would a moderately long travel be 
considered better than a short one ? 

A. In a practically level country w 7 here, with short 
travel and a large number of air cars in a train, the 
train might be slowed up or stopped with a light train- 
line reduction, thus causing too frequent releases. 

Q. What harm would a too short travel do? 

A. The piston might not get by the leakage groove, 
and the shorter the travel the more danger of sliding the 
w T heels on account of the greater braking power de- 
veloped. A too short travel does not give sufficient 
shoe clearance, and causes a train to pull hard if the 
brake shoes drag. 

Q. On most passenger cars piston travel can be 
taken up by winding up the hand brake a little, as 
the two brakes work in opposition to each other. 
Is this a good practice t 

A. No ; it is the act of a lazy workman, and is 
dangerous. 



Piston Travel. 63 

Q. Hozu is it dangerous ? 

A. If the brake is set quickly, it is likely to snap 
the brake chain, and if a passenger had hold of a hand 
brake wheel when the brake was applied, if the dog 
were not caught, the wheel flying round might break 
his hand or arm. 

Q. If the hand brake on a car works with the 
air {Fig. go ), and the air brake was applied, what 
would result if the hand brake were then applied? 

A. The braking power developed would be too 
much for the safety of the wheels, rods, etc., since the 
resultant braking power is equal to the sum of the 
power of both brakes. 

Q. If the air brake were then released what dif- 
ficulty would be experienced? 

A. Since the hand brake retains all of the power of 
both brakes it would be a very difficult matter for the 
brakeman to release the brake. 

Q. With this kind of a brake what would result 
ij the hand brake were first applied and then the air? 

A. If the air brake were more powerful than the 
hand brake, slack would be thrown into the hand brake 
chain, and the gain in power would be the excess power 
of the air over that of the hand brake. If the air power 
were not as strong as that of the hand no effect would 
be produced since the pull in the hand brake rod would 
be diminished an amount equal to the power of the air. 

Q. If the hand and air worked opposite, that is y 
they tended to move the push rod in opposite direc- 
tions to apply the brake {see Fig. gi\ what effect 
would be produced if the air brake was applied and 
then the hand brake ? 



64 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. The air brake fully applied is usually stronger 
than the hand brake, hence the pull on the hand brake 
rod due to the air pressure would be greater than could 
be exerted by the brakeman, and the brake wheel could 
not be turned after the slack in the brake chain had 
been taken up. Under these conditions no braking 
power could be gained by using the hand brake. 

O. If the hand brake were first applied and then 
the air what would be the result f 

A. Applying the hand brake took up all the slack 
in the brake rigging and forced the push rod and piston 
in as far as they could go. When air from the auxiliary 
passed through the triple valve to the brake cylinder it 
would pass through the leakage groove to the atmos- 
phere and simply the power of the hand brake w 7 ould 
remain. The clearance in the cylinder being very 
small would result in a very high pressure when the air 
first entered, thus tending to strain the rods and brake- 
chain, but the air w r ould quickly escape as explained. 

Q. Which is the better brake from the stand- 
point of danger to the brakemen? 

A. The one in which both work together. If, 
where the brakes w 7 ork opposite, a man is using the 
hand brake at the same time the engineer uses the air, 
or an air hose bursts, the air power will turn the brake- 
wheel in the opposite direction tending to throw the 
brakeman from the train. 

Q. If the cars of a train are equipped with air 
and hand brakes working together, and the train 
was being controlled by air, what could be done if 
the engineer lost control of the train f 

A. The engineer could call for brakes and without 
releasing the air, the crew could add the power of the 
hand brakes to that of the air. 



Piston Travel. 65 

Q. What would have to be done in a case like 
this if the hand and air brakes worked opposite f 

A. After calling for brakes it would be necessary for 
the engineer to make a release before the crew could 
apply the hand brakes, since if this were not done and 
the hand brakes were applied, any leakage of brake 
cylinder pressure would allow the piston to move in, 
thus throwing slack into the brake rigging and releas- 
ing the hand brake. 

Q. How about leaving cars on a grade if the 
air brake is applied? 

A. If the hand and air work together, the hand 
brake can be applied without first releasing the air and 
it will remain set after the air leaks off. If the brakes 
work opposite, it is necessary to bleed the car before 
applying the hand brake ; if this is not done, the re- 
lease of the air brake by leakage will also release the 
hand brake and the car will run away. 

To be on the safe side it is best, as a general rule, to 
always release the air on one car at a time and apply 
the hand brake, when leaving a car or train on a grade ; 
but this would not be necessary, from the standpoint of 
safety, if all brakes worked together. 

Q. Are most brakes designed to work together 
or opposite ? 

A. A large majority of freight car brakes are de- 
signed to work together, while in passenger service the 
opposite is true ; but the importance of this question 
will result eventually in practically all brakes being de- 
signed to work together. 



THE AMERICAN BRAKE SLACK ADJUSTER 
AND PISTON TRAVEL REGULATOR. 

Q. Name the different parts of the American 
Brake Slack Adjuster shown in Fig. ij ? 

A. ii is the cylinder; 19, the packing leather held 
in position by the expander ring and follower; 22, the 
pawl; 23, the pawl spring; 21, the piston spring; 24, 
the cylinder head and casing ; and 27, the ratchet nut. 

Q. Name the parts shown in Fig. 12 t 
A. 1 is the ratchet nut ; 2, the cylinder ; 3, the 
cylinder head and casing ; 4, the adjuster screw ; a, the 
port which connects pipe b with the inside of the 
cylinder; and b } a pipe connection from the slack ad- 
juster cylinder with port a of the main cylinder. 

Q. What is the object of the lug a {Fig. ij)f 
A. As illustrated in Fig. 13, its object is to lift the 
pawl out of the ratchet nut (27) when the adjuster piston 
is in release position. In the position shown the ratchet 
nut can be turned by hand to take up or let out slack 
when necessary, as when applying new brake shoes. 

Q. Explain the operation of the adjuster? 

A. In Fig. 13 it is shown in the normal or release 
position. If there is sufficient slack in the brake rig- 
ging, so that the piston in the large cylinder (Fig. 12) 
uncovers port a when the brake is applied, cylinder 
pressure will pass through port #, pipe b, and into 
cylinder 11 (Fig. 13). The piston will be forced out> 



Slack Adjuster. 



67 




68 Air-Brake Catechism. 

compressing piston spring 21. The movement of the 
piston disengages pawl 22 from lug a } and pawl spring 
23 causes the pawl 22 to engage in the teeth of the 
rachet nut. 

When the brake is released and the piston in the 
brake cylinder is forced to release position by the re- 
lease spring, port a is connected with the non-pressure 
end of the cylinder, hence the air in the slack adjuster 
cylinder passes through pipe b (Fig. 12), port a, and out 
to the atmosphere through the non-pressure head. 

When the air is released from the slack adjuster 
cylinder the piston spring 21 forces the piston back and 
it in turn, through the pawl, turns the rachet nut which 
draws the screw away from the cylinder. Lever 5 
(Fig. 12) is fastened to a crosshead attached to the ad- 
juster screw, hence the lever is moved correspondingly, 
the effect of which is to draw all the brake shoes nearer 
to the wheels. 

Q. How does this shorten the piston travel? 

A. The shoes being nearer the wheels it will require 
a less movement of the piston to bring the shoes in con- 
tact with the wheels. 

Q. How many teeth does the pawl skip at each 
movement of the adjuster piston throughout its 
stroke, and what movement of the crosshead attached 
to lever 5 (Fig* 12) result? 

A. The pawl usually skips one tooth, engaging the 
second of the adjuster nut each time. One operation of 
the adjuster moves the crosshead, connected to the lever, 
^V of an inch. 

Q. If the adjuster nut 1 {Fig. 12) is moved one 
turn, how far will the crosshead attached to the lever 
5 be moved ? 

A. One-quarter of an inch. 



Slack Adjuster. 69 

Q What is the object in having the crosshead 
move but 1/32 of an inch for each operation of the 
adjuster? 

A. When a car is in motion false travel is often 
produced owing to unevenness of the track and similar 
causes ; if the adjuster should take up all this extra 
slack the piston travel would frequently be found too 
short. 

Q. What is the controlling factor in the amount 
of piston travel to be permitted? 

A. The location of port a in the brake cylinder 
(Fig. 12). It is usually located to obtain an eight-inch 
" running " travel. 

Q. If the brake is applied when a car is at rest 
and the piston travel were but six or six and one- 
half inches, would you decide that the adjuster was 
not working properly ? 

A. No. 

Q. Explain the last answer ? 

A. The slack adjuster adjusts the "running" travel 
at eight inches, and as the "running" is always greater 
than the "standing" travel, we would expect to find 
the piston travel shorter when the car was at rest. 

Q. Would the " standing" travel be the same on 
all cars ? 

A. No ; this depends upon the total leverage. 

Q. Woutd the " running " travel be the same on 
all cars ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. To apply new shoes it is necessary to increase 
the shoe clearance ; how is this done ? 

A. By turning the ratchet nut 1 (Fig. 12) to the left. 



7 o 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




Slack Adjuster. 71 

Q. After the new shoes are applied how may the 
piston travel be shortened? 

A. By turning the adjuster nut to the right. 

Q. How should we proceed to apply a slack ad- 
juster to a car t 

A. Drill port a so that brake cylinder pressure can 
reach pipe b after the cylinder piston has travelled eight 
inches and erect the parts and piping as shown in Fig. 
12, pipe b to be copper. The upright part of port a (Fig. 
14) is drilled with a j^-inch drill and the upper portion 
plugged ; the part of the port into which pipe b con- 
nects is drilled and tapped for J^-inch pipe. After 
erecting, test joints with soap suds. Next put on a new 
set of brake shoes and adjust the piston travel by means 
of the dead levers, from six to six and one-half inches. 

The length of the different rods should be such that 
the dead and live levers will have an inclination so 
that when the shoes are worn out they will have a cor- 
responding inclination in the opposite direction. 

Q. What is the standard length between centers 
of holes in the rod connecting the cylinder levers 
when using the slack adjuster ? 

A. 42 inches. 

Q. What is invariably the cause of the piston 
travel being too short on a car equipped with an 
American Slack Adjuster? 

A. Either some of the slack has been taken up by 
the hand brake, or the position of the dead levers has 
been changed. 

Q. What may occasion the piston travel to be- 
come too long ? 

A. Pipe b may be obstructed, leaks may exist in 
pipe b, or the slack adjuster cylinder, or the packing 



72 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



leather. The car may have been running some time 
with the slack partly taken up on the hand brake, a 
subsequent entire release of which would introduce an 
amount of slack that it would require some time for the 
adjuster to take up. 

Q. Is there ever a time when, zvith the brake 
released, the racket nut can not be turned? 

A. Yes ; when the crosshead is at the end of its. 
stroke. 

Q. Why can the racket nut not be turned under 
these conditions t 

A. With the rachet nut at the end of its stroke, and 



PORT TO BE %% FROM PRESSURE HEAD 




Fig. 14. — Showing Proper Method of Drilung Brake 
Cylinders when used with the American Automatic 
Brake Slack Adjuster. 



the piston travelling beyond the limit, air will operate 
the slack adjuster piston, causing the pawl to engage a 
tooth of the ratchet nut, in which position it will remain, 



Slack Adjuster. 73 

since, the crosshead being at the end of its stroke, the 
adjuster screw can not be turned. 

Q. How can the pawl be disengaged? 

A. The adjuster is so designed that the crosshead, 
when at the end of its stroke, is drawn against a set 
screw next to the cylinder casing 3 (Fig. 12), but not 
shown in the cut. Removing this set screw permits of 
a further movement of the crosshead and the usual 
operation takes place, allowing the pawl to be disen- 
gaged. The adjuster nut may then be turned by hand, 
thus moving the crosshead nearer the large cylinder for 
the purpose of giving sufficient slack to permit of the 
application of new brake shoes. The set screw should 
always be replaced after the pawl has been liberated and 
the crosshead moved back. 

Q. What might happen if the pawl were caught 
as just described and, not understandi7ig the func- 
tion of the set screw, a large wrench were used to 
turn the ratchet nutt 

A. Some of the teeth might be broken off of the 
ratchet nut. 

Q. How often should the slack adjuster cylinder 
be cleaned and lubricated? 
A. About once in six months. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE RETAINING VALVE. 

Q. With what equipments is the retaining valve 
used? 

A. Throughout the country on freight cars, and on 
engines, tenders, and passenger cars in mountainous 
country. 

Q. Why do they not use it on passenger cars in 
hilly country? 

A. It is not necessary, as the higher braking power 
used in passenger service is sufficient to run moderate 
hills with safety. 

O. Where is it usitally located? 

A. Usually at the end, close to the brake standard 
on freight cars, and at the end about on the level of the 
edge of the hood on passenger cars. 

Q. Where is it located on cars having vesti- 
bules ? 

A. On the outside of the vestibule, in which case a 
special valve is used, the handle of which extends within 
the vestibule (see Fig. 17). 

Q. To what is it connected? 

A. To the exhaust port of the triple by means of 
a 2^-inch or J^-inch pipe. 

Q. What is its use ? 

A. To retain fifteen pounds pressure in the brake 
cylinder to steady the train, and keep its speed from in- 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 75 

creasing too rapidly while the engineer is recharging the 
auxiliaries. 

Q. How does the handle of the valve stand when 
not in use ? 

A. Straight down. 

Q. How does it stand when in use ? 

A. In the position shown in the cut (Fig. 15). 




TO EXHAUST PORT OF 
TRIPLE VALVE 



Fig. 15.— Pressure Retaining Vai,ve» 

Q. If the brake is not applied, can it be set by 
turning itp the retainer handle ? 

A. No; the retainer can be used only to hold air in 
the brake cylinder that has already been put there. 

Q. Explain the passage of the air through the 
retainer when not in use. 

A. With the retainer handle pointing down, as 
when not in use, any air coming from the cylinder 



76 Air-Brake Catechism. 

would pass through ports a, 6, and out to the atmosphere 
through port e. 

Q. Explain the passage of air through the 
retainer when in use, as shown by the cut. 

A. When the engineer increases his train-line 
pressure the triple assumes release position, and the 
air passing from the brake cylinder has to pass out to 
the atmosphere through the retaining valve. With the 
retainer handle turned up, the air passes through port b 
until it strikes the weighted valve 20. Any pressure 
over fifteen pounds forces this valve from its seat and 
passes through the restricted port opening c to the 
atmosphere. When the pressure in the cylinder is 
reduced to fifteen pounds, it is held back by the valve 
20. 

Q. What is the size of the small end of port c ? 

A, One-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 

Q. Why is it made so small? 

A. To keep the brake cylinder pressure from 
escaping to the atmosphere too rapidly after valve 20 is 
lifted. 

Q. How long will it take the cylinder pressure 
to reduce from fifty down to fifteen pounds through 
this retainer ? 

A. About twenty or twenty-five seconds, during 
which time the auxiliaries with an average length of 
train have become pretty well charged. 

Q. Have all retainers this restricted port c ? 

A. No ; in some old retainers there are two ports of 
J-inch diameter each. 

Q. Will a retainer hold more pressure with a 
long or a short piston travel on a car ? 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 7? 

Ac It holds the same pressure regardless of the 
travel. The volume held is greater on the long travel 
car. 

Q % How do zve test retainers ? 

A. Have the engineer apply the brakes, and turn up 
the retainer handles. Then signal the engineer to 
release, and wait about half a minute, after which walk 
along and turn down the handles. If a blow accom- 
panies the turning down of the handles, the retainer is 
working properly, otherwise the pressure has leaked 
away. 

Q. What troubles would make a retainer 

inoperative ? 

A. A leak in the plug valve operated by the 
retainer handle ; weight 20 (Fig.15) being gone or dirt on 
its seat ; a split pipe leading from the triple exhaust to the 
retainer, or a leak in the packing leather in the brake 
cylinder which would allow the air to escape to the 
atmosphere. 

Q. What could be the trouble with the retainer 
if, after the brake was applied and the retainer put 
in use, no air escaped from it when the engineer 
increased the train-line pressure? 

A. Port c might be blocked. 

Q. If we wish to tise a retainer in descending a 
grade, should the handle be turned up before or 
after the brakes are applied? 

Ac It makes no difference, if everything is in proper 
condition. 

Q Explain a case jvhere it would not be proper 
to turn up the retainer handle until just before we 
wish to use it. 



78 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. If the rubber-seated or the slide valve in the 
triple leaked, and we turned up the retainer handle, air 
would accumulate to a pressure of fifteen pounds in the 
cylinder if the leakage groove were closed, and set the 
brake on this car. If the train were just pulling over a 
summit, the brake being on might stall the train. 

Q. Give a rule to produce best results in using 
the retainer. 

A. In testing retainers while standing, turn up the 
handles at your convenience before or after the brakes 
are applied ; but when using them on the road, turn 
them up after the brakes are applied or a short time 
before wishing to use them. 

Q. Is a retainer ever used except to steady a 
train when recharging? 

A. Yes; when brakes have been applied too hard y 
a few are sometimes used to keep the slack bunched 
after releasing, when drifting along preparatory to mak- 
ing a stop. 

Q. Set a brake with the full service application, 
then turn up the retainer handle, release and 
recharge. After charging the auxiliary in full 
again, make a full service reduction. Will the 
brake set any harder one time than another ? 

A. Yes, it will set harder the second time. 

Q. Why ? 

A. When we started to apply the brakes the first 
time, we had seventy pounds auxiliary pressure and 
nothing in the brake cylinder. The second time we 
had seventy in the auxiliary and fifteen pounds in the 
brake cylinder. By comparison we see that w T e had 
more air the second time with which to do our braking, 
and the pressures will therefore equalize higher. 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 79 

Q. Would we gain more the second time over 
that of the first with a long or a short piston 
travel? 

A. With the long, because the retaining valve on the 
long travel car retains the same number of pounds in 
the cylinder as on the short one, but a larger volume ; 
having a greater volume the pressures equalize corres- 
pondingly higher. 

Q. Do 'we gain the whole fifteen poiinds more 
the second time over what is obtained the first ? 

A. No ; we gain from about three to six pounds 
pressure, according to the piston travel. 

Q. About how much pressure do we get in the 
brake cylinder for a five-pound train-line reduction ? 

A. It varies from seven to eleven pounds with aver- 
age piston travel. It may be more or less, but this 
would be a fair average. 

Q. After getting the use of the fifteen pounds 
that the retainer holds, how much pressure would 
we then get in the cylinder for a five-potind train- 
line reduction with an average piston travel? 

A. Between thirty and forty pounds. 

Q. Where a twenty-pound reduction zvill set a 
brake in full without the aid of the retainer y how 
much reduction is necessary with the fifteen pounds 
it holds to aid? 

A. From twelve to fifteen pounds with fair travel. 

Q. Name another gain after obtaining the use 
of the retainer. 

A. If we have to apply the brakes in full, it does not 
take so long to recharge, as the auxiliary and brake- 



8o 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



cylinder pressures equalize higher with the retainer to 
aid. 

Q. How could we tell if it was safe to turn up a 
retainer handle before reaching the top of a hill and 
not have the brakes drag? 

A. Put the hand over the exhaust port and hold it 
there a few seconds to see if any air is issuing ; if not, it 
is safe to turn up the handle. 

Table. 



(i) 



(2) 



(3) 



(4) 



(5) 



(6) 



(7) 



Piston Emer- Emergency 5 Lbs.Serv. 5 ^ 8 ; 861 ^ Full FullServ. 
travel gency with Ret. Reduction . ^ ¥?\ Service with Ret. 



Inches Lbs. 



4 

5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

11 



62 
61 

59* 
58i 
57* 
56J 

55* 
55 



Lbs. 

65 

63 

63 

62 

62 

61} 

61 

60 



Lbs. 
23 

i9i 
13* 

10 

8 

+ 
+ 



Lbs. 

59 
55 
5 1 
43 
38 
35 
32 
3° 



Lbs. 

57* 

55* 

53 

52 

5°i 

48 

46 

45 



Lbs. 
61 

59 
58 
57 
56 
55 
54 
53 



The above figures were obtained by taking an average of four tests 
for each condition. 

Bach test was made with a train-line and auxiliary pressure of sev- 
enty pounds. 

The first column represents the piston travel. 

The second column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
in emergency. 

The third column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained in 
emergency after the retainer has been used ; that is, there was al- 
ready a pressure of fifteen pounds in the brake cylinder held by the 
retainer when the emergency was used. 



The Westinghousk Retaining Valve. 8i 

The fourth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a five-pound service reduction. 

The fifth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a five-pound service reduction after once obtaining the use of 
the air held in the cylinder by the use of the retainer. 

The sixth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a full service reduction. 

The seventh column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a full service r eduction after getting the use of the retainer. 

+ simply means that the gauge used registered no pressure less 
than five pounds. With an n-inch travel the air is expanded into so 
large a space that a very small pressure is obtained. 

The table should be read from the left to the right. 

Q. What are the retaining valves shown in Figs, 
i6 ) //, 18 and 19? 

A. Figs. 16 and 17 represent valves designed to op- 
erate with 12, 14 and 16-inch cylinders. Though 
slightly different in structure, the operation is practi- 
cally the same as the one already described. 

Q. Why is it necessary to have two sets of re- 
taining valves for use ivith 6, 8 ) and 10; and 12, 
14, and 16-inch cylinders? 

A. It is essential in releasing brakes that the pres- 
sure in all cylinders be reduced about alike. The ports 
in the valves for use with 12, 14, and 16-inch cylinders 
are correspondingly larger than those in the valves for 
use with the smaller cylinders. 

Q. What is the purpose of the extension handle 
{Fig. 17) t 

A. This valve is for use on vestibule cars. The 
body of the valve is located outside the vestibule, but 
the handle extends within. 

Q. What is the common name for this valve ? 
A. The " Pullman Retaining Valve." 

Q What is the difference between this valve and 



82 



Air-Bra kk Catechism. 




Fig. 16.— Retaining Valve 
used with 12, 14 and 16- 
INCH Brake Cylinders. 




Fig. 17. — Pullman Retain- 
ing Valve, used on Ves- 
tibule Cars. 




Fig. 18, — Standard Retain- 
ing Valve used with 6, 
Sand io-inch Brake Cyl- 
inders. 



LAP PK>SIT!OI 




Fig. 19. — Driver-brake Re- 
taining Valve. 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 83 

the corresponding one for use on cars not equipped 
with vestibules? 

A. The keys are set at right angles to each other in 
the bodies of the two valves and, as already explained, 
the " Pullman " valve has an extension handle. 

Q. Is the operation of the two and the results 
accomplished the same f 
A. Yes. 

Q. How many kinds of retaining valves are 
furnished by the JVestinghouse Company , and what 
is their use t 

A. Five. The one shown in Fig. 18 is for use with 6, 
8, and 10-inch cylinders 011 non-vestibule cars ; practically 
the same valve, but with an extension handle and key at 
right angles, is used on vestibule cars. Figs. 16 and 17 
represent the corresponding valves for use with 12, 14, 
and 16-inch cylinders. Fig. 19 is a cut of the Driver- 
Brake Retaining Valve. 

Q, How does the Driver-Brake Retaining J dive 
operate f 

A. In the same general way as the other, except that, 
if so desired, it may be placed on lap, as indicated, in 
which position no air can escape from the brake-cylinder. 
When the handle points straight up the usual 15 pounds 
is retained, when the triple piston is forced to release 
position. 

Q. For what speeial use was the Driver-Brake 
Retaining Valve designed t 

A. For use on freight engines and those hauling 
long passenger or excursion trains. It furnishes a 
means, within the control of the engineer, by which the 
slack of a train may be kept bunched, if desired, when 
drifting up to a water crane, releasing brakes at slow 
speeds, and under similar conditions. 



MAIN RESERVOIR. 

Q Where does the air go when it leaves the 
pump ? 

A. To the main reservoir. 

Q Where does main reservoir pressure begin 
and where end? 

A. It begins where the air leaves the pump and ends 
at the engineer's valve. 

Q. What is the object of the main reservoir? 

A. Its object is to act as a storehouse in which to 
keep a reserve pressure to throw into the train line to 
release brakes and recharge auxiliaries. It al&o acns to 
collect most of the dirt, oil, and moisture that leaves the 
pump. 

Q. How much main reservoir pressure is usual- 
ly carried? 

A. Usually ninety pounds, although more is used in 
mountainous country, when using the High-Speed Brake, 
or the High-Pressure Control, or the Duplex Method of 
Main Reservoir Regulation. 

Q. What size main reservoir is considered 
prroper ? 

A. One whose capacity is not less than 40,000 cubic 
inches for freight, and 20,000 or more for passenger en- 
gine- 

Q. How large should any main reservoir be ? 

A. In releasing brakes in any service the main 
reservoir must be large enough so that, when the brakes 



Main Reservoir. 85 

are applied and we wish to release them, the main 
reservoir pressure will equalize with that in the train 
line, when connected with it, at a sufficiently high 
pressure to insure the prompt and certain release of the 
brakes. 

Q. Why is a larger main reservoir necessary in 
freight than in passenger service ? 

A. Because there are a greater number of auxiliaries 
to charge in freight service and a longer train line to 
supply. 

Q. When is a large main reservoir with full 
pressure most essential? 

A. After an emergency application, and especially 
after a break in two. 

Q. What results are likely to follow the tise of 
small main reservoirs on engines pulling long trains ? 

A. A pump is likely to heat, brakes are likely to 
stick, and we will have a hard handling rotary. 

Q. Why is a pump more likely to heat with a 
small main reservoir ? 

A. Because the smaller the main reservoir, the high- 
er the pressure has to be carried, and the higher the 
pressure the more is heat generated in compressing the 
air ; therefore the pump is more likely to heat and burn 
out the packing. 

A second reason is that with a small reservoir, when 
releasing brakes, the pump has to work faster to charge 
the auxiliaries before the speed of the train increases too 
much. The pump working very fast does not have 
time to take in a full cylinder of air each stroke. The 
pump then has to make more strokes to compress the 
same amount of air, than it would were it working more 
slowly. 



86 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. State the gains made by using a large main 
reservoir. 

A. Pressure in the main reservoir and train line will 
equalize higher when releasing, auxiliaries will be 
charged more quickly, the pump is not so likely to heat, 
and, not working so rapidly or against so high a pressure, 
will not wear out so fast, and the brakes are not so likely 
to stick. 

Q. What should be the location of a main reser- 
voir ? 

A. If possible, at the lowest point in the air-brake 
system. 

Q. Why f 

A. To have all the dirt and oil possible drained into 
it and drawn off through the bleed cock. 

Q. Where is the main reservoir usually located? 

A. Between the frames back of the cylinder saddle. 

Q. Should it be located there ? 

A. Yes, when it is possible to place there a main 
reservoir of the regulation size ; but the size must not 
be sacrificed for the position. 

Q. Where else is it sometimes located? 

A. Under the foot-boards of the cab and sometimes 
on the tank. 

Q. Is it right to locate it on the tank ? 
A. Yes, if the requisite volume can be obtained in 
no other way ; otherwise, no. 

Q. Why is it not a desirable position P 

A. Oil and dirt will not drain into it as they should, 

and when it is so located, two lines of hose have to run 

between the tank and engine, one to carry the air froim 

the pump to the main reservoir, and the other to bring 



Main Reservoir. S7 

the pressure from the reservoir to the engineer's valve. 
These hose get full of oil and dirt, decay, burst, and in 
the end prove very expensive. 

Q, How often should the main reservoir be 
drained? 

A. At the end of each trip. 

Q. Where does this water found in the main 
reservoir come from ? 

A. Most of it is drawn from the atmosphere, and 
given off as the air cools. 

Q. Does any of the condensed steam from the 
steam end of the pump leak by the piston rod and 
then pass into the main reservoir with the com- 
pressed air ? 

A. A trifle ; but this is an inappreciable amount 
compared with what comes from the atmosphere, especi- 
ally on rainy days. 

The following was taken from the '96 Proceedings of 
the Air Brake Association. There were four reservoirs, 
each with a capacity of 12,200 cubic inches, and they 
could all be used together or cut out at will. The test 
was made on a twenty-five car train, and shows the ad- 
vantage of having a large volume of air in the main 
reservoir to equalize with that in the train line. 



Number 


of 


Initial reservoir 


Initial pressure 


Press 


reservoirs 
cut in. 


pressure 
in pounds. 


in train pipe 
in pounds. 


equaliz 
in poi 


4 




IOO 


O 


50 


2 




IOO 


O 


35 


4 




IOO 


5° 


72 


4 




90 


50 


67 


2 




no 


50 


68 


2 




IOO 


50 


63 


2 




90 


50 


61 



88 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q. What is generally conceded to be the best 
practice concerning main reservoirs ? 

A. To use two main reservoirs, preferably long and 
of small diameter, and a cooling pipe of approximately 
30 feet between the pump and first reservoir, and also 
between the first and second reservoirs. 

Q. Why is this done ? 

A, Tests have shown that, with these conditions ex- 
isting, air cools properly before passing the brake valve 
and no water is found in the train-line, thus doing 
away with the chance of frozen train pipes. 



Main 


Reservoir Sizes 




Inches, outside. 


Capacity. 


22^x34 


about 11,200 


cubic inches. 


24^x34 




" 14,000 


u a 


26^x34 




" 15,800 


a u 


2Q>y 2 x 41 




" 12,200 


a u 


2zy 2 x 41 




" 14,000 


a u 


24^ X41 




" 17,400 


a cc 


26% x 41 




" 20,000 


cc u 



Note. — Main reservoir capacity for passenger engines 
should not be less than 20,000, and for freight engines 
not less than 40,000 cubic inches. With a large capacity 
reservoir the pump may be run slower, it is less likely 
to heat, the brakes can be released more promptly, a 
much quicker recharge of the auxiliaries is possible, and 
so much moisture will not reach the train line. When 
air, after reaching the main reservoir, is allowed to cool 
to its initial temperature before being used no moisture 
is ever found in the train line. 



WESTINGHOUSE ENGINEER'S BRAKE 
VALVES. 

Q. What was the first form of valve ttsed? 

A. That which was known as the old three-way 
oock. 

Q. With what equipment was this ttsed f 

A. With the straight air, with the plain automatic, 
and for a time, by a good many roads, with the quick- 
action brake. 

Q. What objection was there to it ? 

A. It was not sufficiently sensitive, and there was 
great danger of throwing the brakes into emergency. 

Q. Why? 

A. Because reductions of train-line pressure were 
made by instinct or sense of sound. An engineer hav- 
ing a short train to-day and a long one to-morrow could 
scarcely avoid doing poor braking, as his valve was noth- 
ing much more than a plug valve. A reduction that 
was a trifle too heavy would throw the triples into quick 
action, and on a long train the reduction could not be 
made too slow, or the air would blow through the leak- 
age grooves in the brake cylinders. If the escape of air 
from the train line were suddenly checked, the air from 
the rear rushing ahead had a tendency to kick off some 
of the head brakes. 

Q. In changing the valve what was the object ? 
A. To obtain a valve that would mechanically and 



90 Air-Brake Catechism. 

gradually make the desired reduction of train-line press- 
ure regardless of the length of the train. 

Q, Was this done immediately f 
A. No ; several forms of valves were made before 
those now in use. 

Q. What are the ones now in use f 
A. The D 8, D 5, E 6, F 6, and the G 6 ; the D 5, 
E 6, F 6 f and G 6, aside from the feed valve, are the 
same, the different letters simply refer to different cata- 
logues issued by the Westinghouse Company. 

Q. Which is the one most in use and the one 
sent out with all modern equipment f 
A. The G 6 valve. 

Q. What is the difference beta f eeu the D 5, E 6 y 
JF 6, and G 6 Brake Valves ? 

A. The first three are all alike and differ from the 
G 6 in the Feed Valve or Train-line Governor only. 
The G 6 has what is known as the Slide- Valve Feed 
Valve, as shown in Figs. 24 and 25. 

Q, What should be the location of an engineers 
valve ? 

A. Within easy reach of the engineer and far enough 
from the boiler that the heat will not dry out and crack 
the gaskets. 



G 6 ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. Explain the different parts of the engineers 
brake valve, 

A. AT, F, T y PI] and R are explained by referring to 
Figs. 21, 22 and 23, Plate VI. 

31 and 32 are known respectively as upper and lower 
body gasket. 

14 is the rotary valve. 

13 a gasket to keep main reservoir pressure from leak- 
ing to the atmosphere. 

The space above piston 18 is known as cavity D; 
this cavity is connected with the little drum by the 
pipe 21. 

18 is the equalizing piston, 22 the train-line exhaust. 

3 and 4 are known as the upper and lower valve 
body. 

There is a tee in pipe 26 just after it leaves the valve, 
one branch of which goes to the red hand on the gauge 
and the other to the pump governor. 

The other parts need no naming. 

Q. Of what use is the engineer's valve ? 
A. To give the engineer complete control of the flow 
of air. 

Q. How many positions are there for the en- 
gineers valve ? 
A. Five. 

O. Name them. 



92 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Full release, running, lap, service, and emergency 
positions, 

Q+ Describe the use of the different positions* 

A. Full release is that used for releasing brakes. 

Running position is the one used when running on 
the road and when the brakes are inoperative. 

Lap position is that which blanks all ports in the 
valve. 

Service is the position used when the brakes are to be 
applied gradually. 

Emergency is the position used when the brakes are 
to be applied suddenly. 

Q. What connections do we have with the valve 
in full release f 

A. A direct connection between the main reservoir 
and train-line through a large port and between the 
main reservoir and cavity D } or the little drum, through 
two small ports. 

Q Explain the flozv of air f?-om the main 
reservoir through the engineer's valve in this 
position. 

A. In this position the main reservoir pressure enters 
the valve at X, passes through port A, port a of the ro- 
tary 14, port b of the rotary seat 3 (Figs. 20, 21 and 23), up 
into cavity c of the rotary and through port / into the 
train-line at K As the air passes through cavity c of 
the rotary on its way to the train-line, it is free to pass 
through port g (Fig. 21) into cavity D. In this posi- 
tion, port/ of the rotary (Fig. 26) is over port e in the 
rotary seat (Fig. 21) also leading to the little drum, or 
cavity D. 

Q Can mam reservoir pressure reach the top 
of the rotary 14 at all times ? 
A. Yes. * 



G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve 



95 



Q : What is the valve shown in Fig. 20 f 

A. It is the top portion of the old D 8 Brake Valve, 
a cut of which is inserted to convey a better idea of the 
flow of air through the brake valve in release position. 

Q. Does the passage of air through the D 8 




Tig. 20. — Showing Flow of Air through Brake Valve 
when in Full Release Position. 



s&rrespond to that of the G 6 Brake Valve in release 
position ? 

A. Although the valves are somewhat different in 
construction, the flow of air in release position is practi- 
cally the same in both brake valves. 



91 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. How much main reservoir pressure is usual- 
ly carried except in very mountainous country ? 
A. Ninety pounds. 

Q. How much presstcre would we get on the 
main reservoir, the train line and the little drum, 
were the handle of the engineer s valve to be left in 
full release position until the pump stopped ? 

A. Ninety pounds in each, as there is a direct con- 
nection between the three. 

Q. What is the small blow we hear if the en- 
gineer s valve is allowed to remain in full release ? 

A. It is the escape of main reservoir pressure through 
the warning port of the rotary into the emergency ex- 
haust (Fig. 23) and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is this port and its purpose ? 

A. It is a port, one end of which is about as large as 
a pin. When the engineer hears this blow it means to 
Mm that he must be careful or he will get ninety pounds 
pressure on the train line if he leaves the handle of his 
valve in full release position too long. 

Q. How much pressure is usually carried on the 
train line and little drum in country not mo^Ln- 
tainotts ? 

A. Seventy pounds. 

Q. How does the engineer prevent a ninety- 
pound pressure getting on the train line and little 
drtcm ? 

A. By moving the valve to the second or running 
position. 

Q. Why do we get only seventy pounds pressure 
on the train line with the valve in running position f 



G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. y5 

A. Because in this position all air passing into the 
train-line from the main reservoir has to pass through 
the feed valve (Fig. 22), and this is adjusted to close as 
soon as there is a seventy-pound pressure 011 the train- 
line. 

Q. In running position we have the position of 
the rotary as shown in Fig. 22, Explain the pas- 
sage of air in this position. 

A. The main reservoir pressure passes through the 
ports j\ f and f (Figs. 22 and 26) into the feed valve, 
or train-line governor as it is more commonly called ; 
thence through port i (Fig. 23) into port / (Figs. 21 and 
23) and out into the train-line at Y. As the pressure 
passes through port / into the train-line it is also free to 
pass up into cavity c of the rotary, which is still over 
port /, as seen in Fig. 22. Port^- is still exposed under 
cavity c } and at the same time the air passes through 
the train-line governor into the train-line, it also passes 
into cavity c of the rotary, port g of the rotary seat 
(Fig. 22) and into cavity D ) or the little drum. 

Q. The train-line governor closes when there are 
seventy pounds on the train line with the valve in 
running position. Hoiv much pressure do we get 
in the main reservoir with the valve in this position f 

A. Ninety pounds. 

Q. What stops the pump when there are ninety 
pounds on the main reservoir f 

A. The pump governor, which is connected with 
main reservoir pressure at 26 (Fig. 21). 

Q. Is the pump governor always set at ninety 
pounds f 

A. No ; only in level and hilly country. In moun- 
tainous country, it is set much higher, also in level 
country where exceptionally long trains are handled. 



96 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. The red hand on the gauge represents main 
reservoir presstcre, and the black hand is, said to 
represent that on the train line. Is the pipe lead- 
ing to the black hand connected directly to the train 
line ? 

A. No ; it is connected to little drum pressure. (Sec 
21, Fig. 21.) 

Q. Why is it called train-line pressure if ?tot 
connected to it ? 

A. Because in full release or running position port g 
furnishes a direct connection between the little drum 
and train line, and the pressures must be equal. 

Q. What is the next position to the right of 
running position ? 

A. Lap position. 

Q. How does the air flow with the valve in this 
position f 

A. There is no passage of the air as all ports arc 
blanked. The rotary is moved around sufficiently to 
shut off port,/ in the rotary from port /in the rotary 
seat, and a small lug on the inside rim of the rotary 
also covers port g y thus separating the train line from 
the little drum. In this position the main reservoir, 
train-line and little drum pressures are each by them- 
selves. 

Q. What is the dividing line between the train- 
line and little drum pressures in this position f 
A. The equalizing piston 18 (Fig. 21). 

Q. Do we still refer to the black hand as repre- 
senting train4ine pressure on lap, knowing the ports 
are closed between the little drum and train line ? 

A, Yes. 



G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 97 

Q. If there were a leak on the train line, would 
the black hand fall back if the valve is on lap ? 
A. Yes, but slowly. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because in order to have piston 18 work smoothly 
the packing ring 19 (Fig. 21) must not be absolutely 
tight. If the train line leaks, the little drum pressure 
will gradually leak by the packing ring into the train 
fine and equalize with it. 

Q. What would happen if this packing ring 
were tight? 

A. With the valve on lap all train-line pressure could 
leak away and the black hand on the gauge would not 
show it. 

Q. What is the next position to the right of lap ? 
A. Service position. 

Q, What is this position used for ? 

A. To make a gradual application of the brakes. 

Q. Explain this position. 

A. In this position, a groove p (Fig. 27 ) of the rotary 
connects port e (Fig. 23) leading to the little drum 
through rotary seat with a groove h (Fig. 23) also in the 
rotary seat ; h leads into the emergency exhaust k (Fig. 
33) , which is directly connected with the atmosphere as 
^hown by the dotted lines. We then have a direct con- 
nection from the little drum to the atmosphere through 
small ports. 

Q. What is port e called? 

A. The preliminary exhaust port. This hole is 
bushed, and the bushing has a small taper hole through 
it. 



98 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. In what two positions is it that the prelimi- 
nary exhaust port e is used? 

A. In the release position and also in the service po- 
sition. 

Q. What is its use in the release position of the 
brake valve ? 

A. To permit main reservoir pressure to feed down 
into chamber D above the equalizing piston 18, as 
shown in Fig. 21, Plate VI. 

Q. What is this port used for in the service posi- 
tion of the brake valve t 

A. It is used to permit the pressure above the 
equalizing piston, connected with the equalizing reser- 
voir through port ^ to escape to the atmosphere. 

Q. What effect does taking air from the little 
drum have? 

A. It reduces the pressure on top of piston 18. The 
pressures were the same on both sides of it, but when 
the reduction is made from the little drum in sendee 
position, it leaves piston 18 with the greater pressure 
underneath on the train-line side of the piston. 

Q. What effect has this? 

A. The train-line pressure being greater forces piston 
18 from its seat and allows train-line pressure to escape 
to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust 22 
(Fig. ai.) 

Q. How long does piston 18 remain off its seat ? 

A, Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater 
than that in the little drum. When the little drum 



PLATE VI.— G 6 BRAKE VALVE WITH SLIDE-VALVE FEED VALVE. 




r 6 Engineer's Brake Valve, Release Position. 





Fig. 22.— G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve, Running Position. Fig. 23.— G 6 Engineer's Brake Vaxve, Plan View. 




(^ 




■ , i' ' r ii 



:: 



Fig. 25.— Slide- Valve Feed Valve. 




Fig. 26.— Top View or Rotary Valve. Fig. 27.— Bottom View of Rotary Vali 



G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 99 

pressure is a trifle greater than the train line, piston 18 
is forced to its seat. 

Q. Do zue still speak of the black hand as repre- 
senting train-line pressure ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. How do we know it is the same as thab in 
the little drum to which the gauge pipe leading to 
the black hand is connected ? 

A. Because the equalizing piston will take the same 
amount of pressure from the train line before it closes 
that the engineer took from the little drum. 

Q. If the engineer wishes to apply brakes gradu- 
ally, does he take air from the train line ? 

A. No ; he takes it from the little drum, and piston 
1 8 takes care of the train line. 

Q. To what else in the brake system is the piston 
1 8 similar in its work f 
A. The triple piston (Plates IV and V). 

Q. What is the next position to the right of 
service ? 

A. Emergency position. 

Q. Explain this position, 

A. The rotary is moved around so that the large 
cavity c (Fig. 27) is directly over the large ports I and h 
of the rotary seat (Fig. 23). Air passes from the train 
line at I into cavity c and out to the atmosphere through 
port h 

Q. What is the object of zising the large ports f 

A. To get a very sudden reduction on the train line 
to cause the triple valves to go into quick action. 

LOFC. 



ioo Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Is the reduction necessarily heavy to obtain 
quick action f 

A. No ; it is quick. 

Q. Does the little drum pressure dr the equaliz- 
ing piston play any part in the emergency applica- 
tion ? 

A. None whatever. 

Q. In running position when the pump stops we 
have ninety pounds i7i the main reservoir and seventy 
on the train line. What is the difference between 
the pressure in the main reservoir and the train 
line called? 

Ac Excess pressure. 

Q. What is the use of excess pressure f 
A. It is a reserve power to throw into the train line, 
when the valve is placed in release position, to force the 
triple pistons to release position and help recharge the 
auxiliary reservoirs. 

Q. If the pump were started with the handle of 
the valve on lap, how much pressure would we get in 
the main reservoir and how much in the train line ? 

A. Ninety pounds in the main reservoir and noth- 
ing in the train line<> 



WESTINGHOUSE SLIDE-VALVE FEED 
VALVE. 

Q. What is the object of the Slide- Valve Feed 
Valve illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25? 

A. To maintain a constant pressure on the train- 
line when the brake valve is in running position. This 
valve is now sent out with the Westinghouse Standard 
G 6 Brake Valve, instead of the old style feed valve, as 
shown in Fig. 28. It contains greater refinement 
of and a more positive action than the older form 
of feed valve, or train-line governor, as it is often des- 
ignated. It fastens to the same studs as the old valve 
and is interchangeable. Fig. 24 shows a central section 
through the supply valve case. Fig. 25 is a central sec- 
tion through the regulating valve and spring box and a 
transverse section through the supply valve case. 

Q Explain the operation of this valve. 

A. Ports f and i (Fig. 25) register with the corres- 
ponding ports in the brake valve body (Fig. 23) ; main 
reservoir pressure can reach the feed valve through port 
f only when the brake valve is in running position. In 
this position it has free access through f and f with 
chamber F. Chamber F } which is separated from 
chamber F by the supply valve piston 54, is connected 
with passage i and thus with the train-line through pas- 
sage c y c } port a (controlled by regulating valve 59), and 
chamber G over diaphragm 57. Regulating valve 59 
is normally held open by diaphragm 57 and regulating 
spring 67, the tension of which is adjusted by regulating 
nut 65. When this valve is unseated chamber E is in 



102 Air-Brake Catechism. 

communication with the train-line and is subject to this 
pressure. 

When the handle of the brake valve is placed in run- 
ning position air pressure from the main reservoir 
enters chamber F and forces supply-valve piston 54 
forward, compressing spring 58, drawing supply valve 
55 with it, thus uncovering port b. It thereby gains 
entrance directly into the train-pipe through ports i y i. 
The resulting increase of pressure in the train-line (and 
in chamber G over diaphragm 57) continues until it 
becomes sufficient to overcome the tension of regulating 
spring 67, previously adjusted at 70 pounds. Diaphragm 
57 then yields and permits the regulating valve 59 to be 
seated by spring 60, closing port a and cutting off com- 
munication between chamber E and the train-line. . The 
pressures in chambers E and F now equalize quickly 
through leakage past supply-valve piston 54, and the 
supply-valve piston spring 58, previously compressed 
when the supply-valve was forced to the right, now 
reacts and forces supply-valve piston 54 and supply- 
valve 55 to their normal positions, closing port b and 
cutting off communication between the main reservoir 
and train-line. 

Q. What causes the feed valve to again permit 
main reservoir pressure to reach the train-line ? 

A. A subsequent reduction of train-line pressure, 
either by leakage or otherwise, reduces the pressure in 
chamber G and permits regulating spring 67 to force 
diaphragm 57 up, thus unseating regulating valve 59, 
thereby permitting the pressure accumulated in chamber 
E to discharge into the train-line through ports c, c and 
a y chamber G and port i. The equilibrium of pressures 
upon the opposite faces of supply-valve piston 54 being 
thus destroyed, the higher main reservoir pressure in 
chamber F again forces supply-valve piston 54, and it in 
turn draws the supply-valve 55 ove* so as to expose 



Slide-Valve Feed Valve. 103 

port b, which again permits the train-line pressure to be 
restored to a pressure of 70 pounds, or other prede- 
termined amount. 

Q. How can the train-line pressure be changed 
when using this feed valve? 

A. Remove the cap 66, turn the adjusting nut 65 in, 
to increase train-line pressure, and out to reduce it. 

Q. What could be wrong if the train-line pres- 
sure equalized with that in the ?nain reservoir and 
this could not be changed by readjtisting the tension 
of the regulating spring 67? 

A. Aside from the causes already explained in con- 
nection with the brake valve proper, there might be a 
leak between ports f and i in the gasket (Fig. 29), be- 
tween the feed valve and brake valve proper ; dirt on 
the seat of the supply valve 55, or the regulating valve 
59, or a poor seat on either ; or the part of the regulating 
valve stein that rests upon diaphragm 57 being too long. 
Dirt on diaphragm 57, which would hold regulating 
valve 59 unseated, would produce the same result. 

Q. What could make the regulating valve stem 
too long? 

A. By grinding the valve in. After this is done it 
should be noted that the end of the stem is flush with 
the projection of the casting upon which diaphragm 57 
rests. 

Q. Why would dirt on the seat of the regulating 
valve 59 cause train-line pressure to become too 
high ? 

A. With dirt on the seat of the regulating valve 59 
air from chamber Zf, at the right of piston 54, could escape 
to the train-line. If it escaped faster than main reservoir 
pressure could leak by the piston ^54, the pressure in 
chamber E would be less than that in chamber F y and 



104 Air-Brake Catechism. 

the supply valve 55 and piston 54 would be moved to 
the right, exposing port b, which connects main reservoir 
and train-line pressures, and the train-line would be 
overcharged. 

Q. What is the object of the brass button at the 
end of the supply-valve piston spring 58? 

A. As a spring is compressed there is a winding- 
action set up, and a tendency for the spring to turn the 
piston, and the piston in turn to twist the supply valve 
from its seat. By the use of the button there is no 
chance for this action, as a very slight bearing is in con- 
tact between the button and piston. The effect of the 
winding action of the spring on the piston is thus 
destroyed. 

O. Name the different parts of the slide-valve 
feed valve. 

A. 51, the body; 52, the flush nut; 53, cap nut; 
54, supply-valve piston ; 55, supply valve ; 56, supply- 
valve spring ; 57, diaphragm ; 58, supply-valve piston 
spring ; 59, regulating valve ; 60, regulating- valve spring ; 
61, regulating-valve cap nut ; 62, spring box ; 63, dia- 
phragm ring ; 64, diaphragm spindle ; 65, adjusting nut ; 
66, check nut ; and 67, the adjusting spring. 



FEED VALVE OR TRAIN-LINE GOVERNOR. 

Q. What is the duty of the train-line. governor f 

A. To keep any desired pressure on the train line 
with the handle of the engineer's valve in running 
position. 

Q. Does it play a part in any other than win- 
ning position ? 

A. No. 

Q. Explain the action of the old style governor 
ivith the engineers valve in running position, 

A. The spring 68 (Fig. 28) supports piston 74, and the 
piston holds the valve 63 from its seat. As long as the air 
pressure on top of the piston is less than the tension of 
the spring 68, valve 63 is held from its seat, and main 
reservoir pressure coming in through port / feeds into 
port i as indicated by the arrow, and on into the train 
line. When the pressure above the piston is greater 
than the tension of the spring 68, the piston is forced 
down, allowing valve 63 to seat. 

Q. How is the train-line pressure regulated? 

A. By screwing up on the nut 70 to strengthen the 
spring and hold valve 63 from its seat longer to gain 
train-line pressure, and lowering nut 70 to weaken train- 
line pressure. 

Q. Of what use are the rubber gaskets 72 and 
the packing ring 6y? 



eo6 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



A. To keep train-line pressure from leaking down 
through the governor and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. What governor troubles will allow full main 
reservoir pressure to go through the governor to 
train line? 




Fig, 28.— Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 

A. (1) Dirt or scale on the seat of the valve 63 
(Fig. 14). ^ 

( 2 ) Spring 68 being screwed up too stiff. 

(3) A leak between the holes of the gasket 56 where 
the governor is bolted to the body of the engineer's valve. 



Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 107 

(4) The lower body of the governor 69 being screwed 
up too tight. 

Q. Explain why the above troubles would pre- 
vent the governor from shutting off the main reser- 
voir pressure when the desired amount of train- 
line pressure had been reached. 

A. (1) Dirt or scale would not allow valve 63 to 
seat. 

(3) Spring 68 being too stiff would hold valve 63 from 
its, seat too long. 

(3) The following sketch showing the gasket between 
the train-line governor and the engineer's valve will 
explain the third trouble and its effect. The dotted line 
represents the leak, 




O ©—-<*) O 




Fig. 29. 

(4) The bottom casing 69 being screwed up too tight 
would crush the rubber gasket 72 at the outer edge. 
The inside of the gasket, not being injured, would lift 
the piston so high that valve 63 could not get low 
enough to seat. In this case the spring 68 could be 
taken entirely out, and still we could get no excess as 
our train-line and main reservoir pressures would equal- 
ize, 

Q. If we wish to remove valve 6j to clean it 
when there is a train coupled to the engine, how 
should it be done ? 



io8 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. Turn the cut-out cock in the train line under tine 
engineer's valve and place the handle in service position 
to remove the train-line pressure between the engineer's 
valve and the cut-out cock. Then remove nut 65 and 
valve 63. 

Q. How should valve 63 be cleaned? 

A. With oil. The seat should never be scraped to re- 
move any gum, as it is a lead seat and a scratch would 
ruin it. 

Q. Wliat should be done before replacing valve 

63 f 

A. The valve should be moved to running position 
to blow out any loose dirt or scale. 

Q. Does the valve 63 begin to close before full 
tram-line pressure is reached? 

A. Yes ; the spring 68 begins to be compressed a 
little before full train pressure is reached so that the last 
few pounds feed more slowly into the train line. 

O. How would you remove piston 74 if it stuck ? 
A. First remove valve 63 as just described, and then 
replace the cap nut 65. Next remove the lower body 
68. Grasp the stem of the piston 66 with the right 
hand and move the handle of the engineer's valve to 
running position with the left. The main reservoir 
pressure coming in will blow out the piston, after which 
lap the valve. Never drive the piston out by putting a 
punch on the stem unless the punch is at least as large 
as the stem. 

Q. In replacing piston 74, what care should be 
exercised? 

A. To carefully enter the packing ring of the piston 

into the brass bushing. Never pound it in as some- 
thing would be broken or sprung. 



Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 109 

Q. With the handle of the engineer 's valve on 
lap, could the train-line governor be removed entirely 
without losing main reservoir pressure ? 

A. Yes ; all ports are blocked, and main reservoir 
pressure could not get through the rotary in this 
position. 

Q. What harm would a leak by the packing ring 
6 7 and through the rubber gaskets J2 do ? 

A. No harm, except what any small leakage of 
train-line pressure would do. 



THE LITTLE DRUM, OR CAVITY D 




Fig. 30.— The Little Drum, or Cavity D. 

Q. How else is the little drum, or cavity D 9 some- 
times spoken off 

A. As the engineer's equalizing auxiliary. 

Q. Where is the little drttm usually located f 

A. Under the foot-boards of the cab, on either the 
fireman's or engineer's side, according to which has the 
most free space. 

Q. What is the object of the little drum ? 

A. To furnish a volume of air on top of the equaliz- 
ing piston in the engineer's valve. 

Q. Would not the air in the small cavity over 



The Little Drum, or Cavity D hi 

the equalizing piston hold air enough to keep the 
piston on its seat ? 

A. Yes ; but there is not a sufficient volume there 
to draw from in making service reductions to make 
them sufficiently gradual. 

Q. What would happen when the engineer put 
the ha7idle of the engineer's valve in service position, 
if there were no little drum to furnish a volume of 
air 07t top of the equalizing piston f 

A. The air would leave the top of the piston in a 
flash on account of the small volume, the black hand on 
the gauge would fall to the pin, the equalizing piston 
rise full stroke, all train-line pressure would rush to the 
atmosphere through the train-line exhaust and the en- 
gineer would have lost control of the brakes. 

Q. How would the brakes on the train act? 

A. If a long train were coupled to the engine, the 
brakes would go full set in a service application ; but if 
a train of less than about six or seven cars, the brakes 
would go into quick action. 

Q. Why full service on a long train and quick 
action on a short one ? 

A. On a short train, when the equalizing piston flew 
up, air from the train line would go to the atmosphere 
through the train-line exhaust faster than the auxiliary 
pressure could get from the auxiliary to the brake 
cylinder through the service port of the triple slide valve. 
When the auxiliary pressures were enough stronger than 
that on the train line, they would force out the triple 
pistons and compress the graduating springs, causing 
the triples to go into quick action. 

On a train of any length the train-line pressure, due 
to the greater volume on the train line, could not get out 
of the train-line exhaust any faster than the auxiliary 



lis Air-Brake Catechism. 

pressure could feed through the slide valves to the brake 
cylinders, and the auxiliary pressures would not be 
strong enough to compress the graduating springs, but, 
losing all train-line pressure, would apply the brakes in 
full service application. 

Q. The three-way cock was done away with to 
get a valve that would mechanically make a gradual 
desired train-line reduction regardless of the length 
of the train. What is it about the valve now used 
that allozvs this to be done? 

Ac The little drum in conjunction with the equaliz- 
ing piston. 

Q. Does an engineer have to leave the handle 
of the engineer s valve in service position any longer 
to make a train-line reduction of Jive pottnds on 
a long train than on a short one? 

A. No; all little drums are of the same size. If a 
five-pound train-line reduction is desired, the engineer 
releases five pounds from the little drum to the atmos- 
phere, and the equalizing piston takes care of the train- 
line pressure regardless of the length of the train. 

Q. If by any chance the pipe leading to the 
little drum were broken off, could we still handle 
the brakes? 
A. Yes. 

Q. How ? 

A. Plug the broken pipe and also the train-line ex- 
haust. When wishing to apply the brakes in service, 
our service position would be of no use as the train- line 
exhaust is plugged ; so move the valve part way into 
emergency position, being careful not to get it too far 
into emergency position so as to make too sudden a re- 
duction, and when putting the valve back on lap do not 



The Little Drum, or Cavity D. 113 

stop the train-line reduction too quickly or the surge of 
air forward may release some of the head brakes. 

Q. In such a case, into what have we trans- 
formed our efficient valve? 

A. Practically into an old three-way cock. 

Q. How do we tell if the preliminary exhaust 
port e is free from gum and corrosion ? 

A. Flace the engineer's valve in service position and 
watch the black hand on the gauge. It should take 
about five or six seconds to reduce the pressure in the 
little drum from seventy to fifty pounds through the 
preliminary exhaust port. 

Q. What, besides the fact that the preliminary 
exhaust port is partially closed, would cause it to 
take longer than six seconds to make this redtcction ? 

A. See the engineer's valve (Fig. 21). If the gasket 
32 leaked between the main reservoir and little drum, or 
between the train line and little drum, or if the packing 
ring 19 were sufficiently loose to allow train-line press- 
ure to feed by too quickly. 

Q. If it takes less than five seconds to make 
this reduction, what is probably the matter ? 

A. There is a leak somewhere in the connection to 
the little drum, which helps make the reduction. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
G 6 VALVE. 

Q. What two troubles in the engineer s valve 
aside from those in the train-line governor would 
not permit any excess pressure with the handle of 
the engineer s valve in running position ? 

A. A leak in the lower gasket 32 (Fig. 21) between 
the main reservoir and the little drum and a leaky 
rotary. 

Q. Why does air leaking from the main reser- 
voir to the little drum in running positio7i not per- 
mit any excess pressure ? 

A. Because in this position the little drum and train 
line are directly connected. 

Q. Does gasket 32 leak very often ? 

A. No ; this is a trouble seldom encountered. 

Q. What indications are given by such a leak ? 

A. In service position it would take longer to make 
a given reduction on the little drum, as air is feeding in 
slowly at the same time it is being taken out through 
the preliminary exhaust. As soon as the valve was 
placed on lap the black hand would quickly feed up to 
main reservoir pressure. 

Q> If the air were leaking into the little drum 
by gasket 32 as fast as it was being removed through 
the preliminary exhaust port, what would happen f 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the G 6 Valve. 115 

A. The equalizing piston could not be raised and the 
only way the brakes could be applied would be by using 
the emergency position. 

Q. How does the leaking of the rotary do away 
with excess? 

A. The air from the main reservoir leaks under the 
rotary seat directly into the train line. 

Q. What har7n besides that of destroying excess 
will result from a leaky rotary ? 

A. We get main reservoir pressure on the train line 
and consequently in the auxiliaries, and the use of ninety 
instead of seventy pounds for braking purposes would 
slide the wheels. After the brakes were applied and the 
valve was en lap, air leaking into the train line from 
the main reservoir would gradually increase train-line 
pressure and force triples to release position. Without 
the proper excess it would also be hard to release brakes. 

Q. How would you test for a leaky rotary? 

A. Start the pump with the valve handle on lap. If 
the black hand starts, the rotary leaks. Gasket 32 leak- 
ing would also cause this, but this leak so seldom hap- 
pens, it may be disregarded in practice., 

Q. Give another way of testing for a leaky 
rotary, 

A. Put the valve on lap and drain everything but the 
main reservoir ; open the angle cock at the rear of the 
tender and put the hose in a pail of water. If bubbles 
rise to the surface the rotary is leaking. 

Q. Which is the better test ? 

A. The second is the more delicate test, but the first 
is sufficiently practical and is easier. 



n6 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Why should everything be drained in making 
the water test ? 

A. Because with all air taken from the train line by- 
opening the angle cock at the rear of the tender, air 
leaking by the packing ring 19 in the piston 18 into the 
train line would cause bubbles to rise to the surface of 
the water. The same thing would result if air from the 
tender and driver brake auxiliaries leaked by the triple 
piston-packing rings. The bubbles would seem to indi- 
cate a leaky rotary, while it was merely an improperly 
conducted test. 

Q. Why can we sometimes get no excess with the 
valve in rttnning position when the engine is alone, 
although the hands will stand properly at ninety 
and seventy when the engine is coupled to a train ? 

A. It simply means that when coupled to a train the 
leaks on the train compensate for the leak through the 
engineer's valve. 

Q. What will cause a constant leak out of the 
train-line exhaust 22 (Fig. 21), whether the valve 
is on full release, running, or lap position ? 

A. Dirt on the seat of the valve at the end of the 
stem of piston 18. 

Q. What is the trouble if this leak does not exist 
in full release or running position, but begins as 
soon as the valve is placed on lap ? 

A. A leakage of little drum pressure causes piston 18 
to rise. 

Q. Where could this leak be ? 

A. In the little drum itself ; in the pipe leading to it ; 
in the pipe leading to the black hand on the gauge ; 
gasket 32 leaking so as to allow little drum pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere ; a scratch on the rotary seat 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the G 6 Valve. 117 

between the preliminary exhaust port e and the groove 
h leading to the atmosphere. 

Q. Why does it leak on lap and not on running 
or full release position ? 

A. Because the leak is not fed on lap, as all ports are 
closed, but it is in the other two positions. 

Q. If the two hands on the gauge do not show 
the same pressure when the valve is left in full re- 
lease position, what is the trouble ? 

A. The gauge is incorrect. The main reservoir and 
train line being directly connected in this position both 
gauge hands should show the same pressure. 

Q. What could be the troitble if in running 
position the red hand showed seventy and the black 
ninety pounds ? 

A. The gauge pipes have been connected to the 
wrong hands. 

Q. What should be done if piston 18 does not 
respond readily to reductions and seems to stick ? 

A. The piston should be removed and cleaned ; but 
never remove the packing ring 19, as it may be sprung 
or broken. 

Get the ring to work free by using kerosene oil to 
clean it. 

Q. How would you apply the brakes if the pre- 
liminary exhaust port were closed and no reduction 
could be made in service position ? 

A. Go carefully toward the emergency position. It 
might be done by lapping the valve and unscrewing the 
nut a little that connects the pipe leading to the little 
drum to the brake valve. 



OPERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE 
D 8 VALVE. 




,TO GOVERNOR 

j — -►TRAIN PIPE 
PRESSURE 



Fig. 31.— D 8 Brake Valve. 
Qo Which valve is most used> the G 6 or the 

A. The G 6, but the D 8 is also used to quite an 
extent. 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 119 

Q. How do the two valves compare with each 
other in the general principle of operation ? 

A. They are alike in principle, bnt the same results 
are reached by differently constructed valves. 

Q. Do they have the same positions ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Is there any difference in the pipe connec- 
tions of the two valves ? 

A. Yes, with the G 6 valve the pipe carrying air to 
the pump governor is connected to main reservoir press- 
ure, while with the D 8 valve it is connected to the 
train line. This will be seen by comparing the cuts of 
the two valves. 

Q. Explain the full release position of the D 8 
valve. 

A. With the handle 8 of the valve (Fig. 31) in full 
release position, the air coming from the main reservoir 
enters the engineer's valve at X, passes on top of the 
rotary, through port a of the rotary 13, port b of the 
rotary seat and into cavity c of the rotary , thence through 
port I and into the train line at Y. 

Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 2>2>) leads to chamber D 
and is exposed to cavity c of the rotary in this position 
of the valve so that air passing from the main reservoir 
into the train line through cavity c is also free to go to 
the little drum through port g. 

In this position F'ig. 32 shows port j open to port e, 
and main reservoir pressure passes directly to the little 
drum through these ports. 

Q. How many ports lead to the little drum in 
full release ? 

A. Two ; the same as with the G 6 valve. 



i2o Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How many to the train line ? 

A. One large one, as with the G 6 valve. 

Q. In full release the main reservoir, train 
line, and little drum are connected. How much 
pressure will we get on each if the pump is started 
with the valve in this position ? 

A. Seventy pounds. 

Q. Why seventy ? 

A. Because with this valve, the train-line pressure 
governs the pump, and the train line usually carries 
seventy pounds. 

Q. Do we still have a connection betzveen the 
main reservoir and train line when the handle is 
moved to running position ? 

A. No, not a direct connection as in full release. 

Q. Do we have a connection between the train 
line and little drum ? 
A. Yes. 
Q. Explain the running position of this valve. 

A. In this position port j (Fig. 32) is moved around 
directly over port / in the rotary seat. The main 
reservoir pressure coming from the top of the rotary 
feeds through ports j and / and strikes the valve 21, 
which is held to its seat by the excess pressure spring 
20. This spring has a tension of twenty pounds so that 
when the main reservoir pressure is twenty pounds 
greater than that back of the valve, or train-line pressure, 
the valve is forced from its seat and the air coming from 
the main reservoir passes through port/ (Fig. 33) into port 
I and into the train line at Y. At the same time it feeds 
into the train line through port /, it feeds up under 
the rotary into cavity c which, as in full release, is ex- 
posed to port I. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 33) is still 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 121 

exposed to cavity c } and as air passes into the train line 
it also passes up into cavity c and through port g (See 
Figs. 31 and 2>2>) into cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. With this valve in running position, how 
much pressure do we get on the main reservoir and 
train line ? 

A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and seventy 
on the train line. 

Q. What stops the pttmp when we have the 
ninety and seventy pounds ? 

A. The pump governor, which is actuated by train- 
line pressure. (See 15, Fig. 31.) 

Q. What gives us the excess pressure of twenty 
pou7ids in the main reservoir ? 

A. The excess pressure spring 20. 

Q. Moving the valve to lap, what is done? 

A. All ports are blanked. 

Q, What shuts the little drum off from the 
train-line pressure on lap? 

A. A lug on the inside of the rotary rim covers port 
g (Fig. 33) in this position. 

Q. Where is air drawn from in service posi- 
tion ? 

A. From cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. Explain this position. 

A. In this position, the slot p on the under side of 
the rotary (Fig. 34) connects port e, which leads through 
the rotary seat to the little drum, with port h in the 
rotary seat (Figs. 32 and 33) leading to the atmosphere. 




Fig. 32.— D 8 Brake Vai,vi$. 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 123 



TO GUAGE 

RESERVOIR 
2Q PRESSURE 




9 1 

TO GuAGE 

TRAIN PIPE PREBeiiRB 



Fig. 33-— D 8 Brake Valve. 



Q. How does the reduction of little drum press- 
ure affect the equalizing piston iy ? 

A. The same as with the G 6 valve. 



124 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q e Is there any difference between the emergency 
position of this and the G 6 valve f 
A. No. 

Q. What is the object of the small slot in the 
rotary seat {Fig Jj) leading from port e, which 
leads to cavity D, towards port f? 

A. This port comes into use when moving the rotary 
into full release position. It is to allow main reservoir 




Fig. 34.— Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Vai,ve. 

pressure to reach cavity D on top of the equalizing pis- 
ton through port j a trifle sooner than it reaches the 
train-line pressure underneath the piston 17. Just as 
soon as the rotary is moved past running position toward 
full release, port j in the rotary is connected with the 
slot in the rotary seat leading to port e> thus allowing 
main reservoir pressure to reach the top of piston 17 a 
trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure 
underneath the piston. 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 125 

Q. What would happen if the air from the 
main reservoir reached the under side of the piston 

J 7 (Fig- 3 2 )fi rstf 

A. The piston would be forced from its seat, espe- 
cially on a short train, and there would be an unneces- 
sary waste of air before the piston would seat 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
D 8 VALVE. 

Q. Why is the equalizing piston ly raised nearly 
every time the handle is thrown to full release, on 
an engine alone, while if the engine is coupled to a 
train of four or more cars this does not happen ? 

A. In full release two small ports charge the little 
drum and one large one charges the train line. On an 
engine alone the volume of air in the train line and the 
little drum are so nearly equal that charging the train 
line so much faster through a large port than the little 
drum is charged through two small ones makes the press- 
ure greater underneath piston 17 than that above it. 
The piston is consequently forced from its seat and 
enough train- line pressure is lost through the train-line 
exhaust to allow little drum pressure to force piston 17 
to its seat. 

Q. Does this happen with both valves ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. Why does this not happen when the engine 
is coupled to some air cars ? 

A. Because in this case the large port used to charge 
the train line in full release has a large space to supply 
with air, and the little drum is charged faster than the 
train line. 

Q. Which hand should start first if the pump 
is started with the valve in full release position ? 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 3 Valve. 127 

A. They should start together and stop at seventy 
pounds. 

Q. Which hand should start first in running 
position ? 

A. The red should go up twenty pounds before the 
black hand moves. They should then proceed twenty 
pounds apart and stop when ninety pounds is registered 
by the red hand and seventy by the black. 

Q. What is the trouble if both hands start and 
remain together with the valve in running position ? 

A. The rotary leaks or there is dirt on the excess 
pressure valve 21 (Fig. 32). 

Q. How do we tell which it is ? 

A. Try the rotary on lap as described with the G 6 
valve, to see if it leaks. If it is tight the trouble is with 
the excess pressure valve. The trouble will be found 
to be dirt on the seat of the excess pressure valve nine- 
teen times out of twenty. 

Q. How can you remove the excess pressure valve 
when everything is charged? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock under the engineer's valve, 
place the rotary on service position and remove the cap 
nut 19. 

Q. After zve remove the excess pressure valve, 
clean it and the chamber in which it works, what 
should be done ? 

A. The rotary should be placed in running position 
to blow out any loose dirt or scale before replacing the 
valve. 

Q. What causes this gum to collect here? 

A. The too free use of oil or a poor kind on the air 
end of the pumpo 



128 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. If the red hand stands at eighty and the 
black hand at seventy when the pump stops and the 
rotary is in running position, what is wrong? 

A. The excess pressure spring 20 (Fig. 32) is weak. 

Q. What if the red stands at one hundred and 
the black at seventy ? 

A. The excess pressure spring is too stiff. 

Q. What if the red stands at eighty and the 
black at sixty, or the red at one hundred and the 
black at eighty ? 

A. The pump governor needs adjusting. 

Q. What is the trouble if no air will pass into 
the train line with the valve in running position ? 

A. The excess pressure valve is stuck to its seat. 

Q. What has to be done ? 

A. The handle of the valve has to be run in full re- 
lease until the excess pressure valve chamber can be 
cleaned. 

Q. How much pressure will we get on the main 
reservoir and how much on the train line if the 
pump is started with the valve on lap ? 

A. No pressure in the train line, and boiler pressure 
in the main reservoir. 

Q. Why boiler pressure in the main reservoir ? 

A. Because the pump continues to work as long as 
the steam is strong enough to compress the air higher, 
there being no air in the train line to work the governor 
and stop the pump. 

Q. Does the main reservoir pressure run up 
this way when the brakes are applied and the valve 
is on lap ? 

A. Yes. 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 8 Valve. 129 

■ Q. How is this overcome ? 

A. The engineer watches the gauge and partially 
closes the pump throttle, or, on some roads, two governors 
are used, one connected to the main reservoir pressure 
and the other, as in the cut (Fig. 33), with the train line, 

Q. What is likely to happen if this high press- 
ure gets into the train line ? 

A. The wheels are likely to be slid and the hose burst. 

Q. If the rotary or excess pressure valves leak 
with the D 8 valve, how will the pump work ? 

A. After stopping, the pump will not start working 
again until both train-line and main reservoir pressures 
have leaked below seventy pounds or that at which the 
governor is set. 

Q. Why is it that with the valve midway be- 
tween the service and full emergency positions the 
black hand shows main reservoir pressure, when we 
know by the position of the valve that there is no air 
in the train line ? 

A. This is a peculiarity of the valve. In this posi- 
tion port j of the rotary stands over port g of the rotary 
seat that leads to the little drum. In this case the press- 
ure represented is what is in the little drum but not in 
the train line, as the tmin line is connected to the at- 
mosphere by a large port. 

Q. Are the troubles with the equalizing piston 
described in the explanation of the G 6 valve ap- 
plicable to the equalizing piston of the D 8 valve ? 

A. Yes. 



A COMPARISON OF THE G 6 AND D 8 
BRAKE VALVES. 

Q. How much pressure do we get in the main 
reservoir, train line and little drum with the G 6 
and D 8 brake valves, if the pump is started with 
the valves in full release and left there until it 
stops ? 

A. Ninety pounds in each with the G 6 valve , and 
seventy in each with the D 8 valve. 

Q. How do the hands on the gauge go up with 
the G 6 and D 8 valves, if the pumps are started 
with the valves in running position ? 

A. With the G 6 valve both hands go together to 
seventy pounds, when the black hand stops, and the 
red hand continues until ninety pounds is reached in the 
main reservoir. 

With the D 8 valve the red hand goes up twenty 
pounds before the black moves. They continue to rise 
twenty pounds apart and stop with ninety on the red 
and seventy pounds on the black hand. 

Q. Why is a leak on the train line more likely 
to creep the brakes on with the D 8 than with the 
G 6 valve y with the valves in running position ? 

A. Because in this position air will feed into the 
train line if the pressure there is less than seventy 
pounds with the G 6 valve, while with the D 8 no air 
will feed into the train line unless there is twenty 



A Comparison of the F 6 and D 8 Brake Valves. 131 

pounds more pressure in the main reservoir than in the 
train line. 

Q. What is the difference between the two valves 
in the stopping of the pump ? 

A. With the G 6 valve, the pump stops when the 
desired pressure is compressed into the main reservoir, 
regardless of the pressure in the train line, while with 
the D 8 valve it is exactly the reverse. 

Q. How much pressure will we get on the main 
reservoir and train line with these valves, if the 
pump is started with the valves on lap ? 

A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and nothing 
on the train line with the G 6 valve ; boiler pressure on 
the main reservoir and nothing on the train line with 
the D 8 valve. 



WESTINGHOUSE PUMPS. 

Q* What four sizes of pumps are there? 
A. The 6, 8, 9^ and n-inch pumps. 

Q. Is the 6-inch pump still in use ? 
A. Yes, but very few are ever seen. 

Q. What is the use of the pump in the air-brake 
system ? 

A. To compress the air used in applying and re- 
leasing the brakes. 

Q. Which pump is gradually becoming the 
standard, and why ? 

A. The 9J-inch pump, because the number of air 
cars now used in trains requires a pump of greater 
capacity to insure recharging the train more quickly in 
descending grades. 

Q. How is dry steam obtained for the pump ? 

A. A pipe is screwed into the dome near its top and 
a pump throttle conveniently located in the pipe, or a 
dry pipe is run from the top of the dome back through 
the boiler and coupled to a pump throttle screwed into 
the top of the boiler inside of the cab, 

Q. What would happen if this dry pipe leaked 
inside the boiler ? 

A. Water would work into the pump and wash out 
the oil, causing the pump to groan and cut. 



PLATE VI1.-THE NINE AND ONE-HALF INCH IMPROVED AIR PUMP. 




LB" ni \ / njpg IJJ 

Fig. 36 



9J-Inch Pump. 133 

Q. What is placed between the pump throttle 
and the pump ? 

Ac The lubricator and pump governor. 

Q. How are they located? 

A. The pump governor next to the pump, and the 
lubricator between the governor and pump throttle. 

Q. What would happen if the lubricator were 
placed next the pump f 

A. When the pump governor shut off the steam, 
with the lubricator ordinarily used, the steam between 
the lubricator and pump governor condensing would 
form a vacuum that would draw all the oil from the 
lubricator, and there would be a great waste of oil. 

Q. What is the capacity of a gyi-inch pump in 
good condition ? 

A. With one hundred and forty pounds of steam 
pressure, a 9! -inch pump will compress air from zero 
to seventy pounds in thirty-eight seconds in a reservoir 
26 \ x 34 inches, and from twenty to seventy pounds in 
twenty-seven seconds. 

Q. What is the capacity of an 8-inch pump in 
good condition f 

A. With one hundred and forty pounds of steam 
pressure, the 8-inch pump will compress air from zero 
to seventy pounds in a main reservoir 26J x 34 inches 
long (outside measurement) in sixty-eight seconds, and 
from twenty to seventy pounds in fifty seconds. The 
reservoir contains about 8f cubic feeto 

9!-Inch Pump. 

Q. What is the office of the parts in the top 
head of the gy^-inch pump {Plate VZf) f 



134 Air-Be akk Catechism. 

A. They with the reversing rod 71 form the valve 
motion of the pump. 

Q. What is Fig 37 {Plate VII) f 

A. It is a cut of the bushing inside of which the 
slide valve 83 moves when actuated by the movement of 
the pistons yy and 79, because fastened to their connect- 
ing stenic 

Q. What arc ports b, d, and ' c ] '{Fig. j 7, Plate VII)? 

A. They correspond exactly to the ports in the valve 
seat of a locomotive. 

In Fig. 35 (Plate VII) we see that b leads to the bottom of 
the steam cylinder, c' to the top, and d leads to the 
exhaust pipe at F. 

Q. Of what use is port t {Fig. 37, Plate VII) ? 

Ac It is a port by means of which chamber E at the 
left of the small piston 79 is connected with the atmos- 
phere through port d. 

Q. If this port were not there, would the pump 
reverse ? 

A. No ; when the main valve pistons yy and 79 
moved to the left, a back pressure would be formed in 
chamber E that would stop the reversing movement of 
the pistons yy and 79 and stop the pump. 

Q. Explain the passage of steam after it enters 
the pump at X, and its effect. 

A. Steam coming from the boiler through the pump 
governor enters the pump at X, thence passes through 
ports a, a! and a 8 (Figs. 35 and 36, Plate VII), into 
chamber A between the main valve pistons. The area 
of piston yy being so much greater than that of 79, the 
steam moves these pistons to the right, carrying the slide 
valve 8 3 (Figs. 35 and 36) with them to the position shown 



91-Inch Pump. 135 

in Fig. 35. Steam in chamber A is now free to pass 
through ports 6, V and b 2 underneath the main piston 65. 

Q. What would become of any steam above 
piston 65? 

A. Any steam above this piston is free to pass to the 
atmosphere through ports c, c', the exhaust cavity B of 
the slide valve, d, d\ d% and through the exhaust pipe 
from Y. 

Q. How is the pump reversed? 

A. The main piston 65 is now being forced up by 
the steam pressure, and just before it reaches the top of 
its stroke the reversing plate 69 strikes the lug / on the 
reversing rod 71, lifting the rod. As this rod is lifted 
the reversing slide valve 72 (Fig. 36) is carried up with it, 
and the pump is reversed. 

Q. What is the duty of the reversing slide valve 
72 {Fig. 36) f 

A. The duty of this valve is to admit and exhaust 
steam from chamber D (Fig. 35) between the piston yj 
and head 84, and, as now shown, it exhausts steam from 
cavity D through ports h and hi (Figs. 37 and 36), port// 
of the reversing slide valve, and through ports/, /, d y 
d\ d% and out at F. 

Q. How does raising the reversing slide valve 
reverse the motion of the pump ? 

A. As the reversing valve is lifted by the rod 71, 
port g in the bushing (Figs. 36 and 37) is exposed to the 
steam pressure which is always in chamber (7, which is 
in constant communication with chamber A by means of 
ports e and e f (Fig. 36). 

When valve 72 is raised, steam passes through port g 
(Figs. 36 and t,j) into cavity D. We now have equal 
steam pressure on both sides of piston 77, and it is 
balanced ; but the pressure acting on the right of piston 



136 Air- Brake Catechism . 

79 moves the pistons and the slide valve to the left> 
connecting the steam pressure in chamber A with the 
top of piston 65 through ports c' and c, and the under 
side of piston 65 is connected with the atmosphere 
through ports b% b f , b, cavity B of the slide valve 83, d y 
d\ d% and out at Y. 

Q. The piston 65 is now on its down stroke ; 
what brings the stroke to the point from which we 
started ? 

A. The reversing plate 69 strikes the button at the 
bottom of the reversing rod 71 and pulls the reversing 
slide valve 72 down to its position as shown in Fig. 36. 
We have now completed one entire stroke of the pump. 

Q. Which are the receiving valves ? 

A. Those marked 86 at the left of Fig. 35. 

Q. Which are the discharge valves ? 

A. Those marked 86 at the right of the pump. 

Q. Describe the action of the air end of the 
pump. 

A. As piston 66 is raised, the air above the piston is 
compressed and a vacuum would be formed underneath 
if air from the atmosphere did not enter through the 
lower receiving valve 86. 

The ports are so arranged that the pressure above the 
piston will strike the receiving valve from above, forcing 
it to its seat, and the discharge valve underneath, forcing 
it from its seat, allowing the compressed air to pass down 
and out into the main reservoir at Z. 

The suction underneath the piston allows atmospheric 
pressure entering at W to force the lower receiving valve 
from its seat and fill the cylinder underneath the piston 
with air. The lower discharge valve 86 is held to its 
seat by main reservoir pressure. When the pump is 



9J-Inch Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 137 

reversed, the opposite valves from those just described 
are affected in the same way. 

Q. Of what use is the port in the cap 74 {Fig. 
j6j Plate VIZ) which leads to the top of the stem 71 ? 

A. This port is connected with the top end of the 
steam cylinder. Were it not for this port there would 
be a back pressure on top of stem 71 which would not 
allow the reversing slide valve to be raised to reverse the 
pump. This port is connected with the atmosphere 
through the top end of the steam cylinder, as shown in 
Fig. a, each time this end of the cylinder is connected 
with the atmosphere. 



9J-Inch Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 

Q. What should be done in packing the pump ? 

A. It should be packed loosely and the gland nuts 
96 screwed up only sufficient to prevent a blow. Do 
not use a wrench if no blow exists when the gland is 
screwed up by hand. 

Q. Should asbestos or anything containing much 
rubber be used in packing a pump ? 

A. No ; asbestos hardens and is hard to remove, and 
rubber is likely to wear the stem too much. 

Q. How often should the air end of the pump be 
oiled? 

A. Modern practice demands that a pump in freight 
and passenger service should be oiled according to the 
work which they perform. The old method of oiling a 
pump only when it groans has been abandoned. 

Q. Some pumps have been run without ever 



138 Air-Brake Catechism. 

oiling the air end; how did the lower cylinder receive 
its lubrication ? 

A. From the swab which should always be placed on 
the piston r od, and from the oily condensation that 
follows down the rod. 

Q. What kind of oil should be used in the air 
end of the pump f 

A. A good quality of valve oil gives the best results. 
The same oil that is used in the steam cylinder also 
gives best results in the air cylinder. 

Q. What care should be taken in starting a 
pump ? 

A. It should be started slowly so as to get a pressure 
of twenty or thirty pounds for the air piston to cushion 
npon, and the condensed steam should be gotten rid of 
before the pump attains any speed. Get the lubricator 
at work as soon as the pump is started. 

Q. Does any harm resitlt from oiling the air 
end of the pump through the suction ? 

A. Yes ; the suction holes are stopped up, the air 
valves gummed, and a generally dirty and ineffective 
pump results. 

Q. What trouble will cause the pump to blow ? 

A. Packing rings in the main steam and reversing 
pistons leaking, slide valve 83, or a leaky reversing 
slide valve 72 are the main troubles. 

Q. What will cause a pump to pound? 

A. It will pound if it is not fastened firmly, if the 
air valves are stuck, or if there is too great a lift of air 
valves. Sometimes it will pound if the reversing plate is 
worn too much to reverse the pump quickly enough, or 
if the nuts on the pistons are loose. 



94-Inch Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 139 

Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge 
valve were stuck open ? 

A. Main reservoir pressure would always be on top 
of the air piston ; this would cause a slow up-stroke and 
a quick down-stroke of the pump. No air would be 
drawn into the pump on the down-stroke. If the oil 
cock were opened on the pump, there would be a constant 
blow at that point as long as there was any pressure in 
the main reservoir, and no oil could be put into the air 
cylinder, as it would be blown out by the escaping air. 

Q. What would be the effect if the bottom dis- 
charge valve were stuck open ? 

A. The same effect as above described, only on the 
opposite stroke of the pump. In this case the oil cock 
would not tell us anything. 

Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge 
valve were stuck shut ? 

A. The pump would have a slow up-stroke, and 
unless the valve were forced from its seat, would stop or 
go slow T enough to allow the pressure above the air 
piston to leak by the packing rings when the air press- 
ure above the piston became as high as the steam 
pressure. 

Q. What would be the effect if the bottom dis- 
charge valve were stuck shut ? 

A. The same effect as just described , but on the 
opposite stroke. 

Q. What effect would follow if the top receiv- 
ing valve were stuck open ? 

A. Air would be drawn into the pump on the down- 
stroke and blown back to the atmosphere on the up- 
stroke. By placing the hand on the air inlet and 



140 Air-Brake Catechism. 

watching the piston this trouble may be easily located. 
The pump would have a tendency to work faster on 
the up-stroke. 

Q. What effect would follow if the bottom 
receiving valve were stuck open ? 

A. The same as just described, but on the opposite 
stroke. 

Q. What would be the effect were the top re- 
ceiving valve stitck shut ? 

A. No air would be drawn into the pump on its 
down-stroke, and a partial vacuum being formed above 
the piston would cause the pump to have a slower 
down-stroke, as the vacuum would be working against 
the steam, and a faster up-stroke, as the vacuum would 
be working with the steam. 

Q. What would be the effect if the bottom 
receiving valve were stuck to its seat ? 

A. The same as with the top receiving valve stuck 
shut, but on the opposite stroke. 

Q. How may a stuck valve usually be loosened? 
A. By tapping the valve cage lightly. 

Q, Hozv will a pump work with dirt on the 
seat of a discharge valve ? 

A. The same as with a stuck receiving valve. The 
dirt on the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed 
back into the pump and aid the steam on half the stroke, 
causing one stroke to be quick, and work against the 
steam on the other stroke, causing the pump to work 
slow. 

Q. How could we tell that a receiving valve 
was stuck shut, or a discharge valve open, besides by 
the erratic action of the pump ? 



9<tInch Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 141 

A. The hand placed on the strainer would feel no 
air drawn in on one-half of the stroke. 

Q. How can we tell if the top discharge valve 
has a. poor seat ? 

A. Open the cock 98 (Fig. 35, Plate VII) and air will 
issue thence constantly if the dirt on the seat of the 
valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into 
the cylinder. 

Q. What caused some of the first gy£-tnch 
pumps to stop ? 

A. The port^- (Fig. 37 } Plate VII) did not extend quite 
far enough, and the wear of piston 77 (Fig. 35, Plate VII) 
would sometimes allow it to travel far enough to close 
port g entirely, and the pump could not be reversed. 

Q. How may a pump often be started if it 
stops ? 

A. By jarring lightly on the top head. 

Q. At what speed are good results obtained 
from a pump ? 

A. At about forty-five or fifty double strokes a minute 
on a level, but in handling air trains on a grade this 
speed should be increased according to work to be done. 

Q. Why is it best not to run a pump too slow ? 

A. A pump running too slow will allow the air that 
is being compressed to leak by the packing rings 67 
(Fig. 36, Plate VII), and air will not be drawn in at the 
other end of the cylinder as it should. 

With sixty strokes to the minute, a pump will make 
more air than with the same number of strokes spread 
over three minutes. In the latter case the compressed 
air has too much time to leak by the air piston-packing 
rings. 



142 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How can we tell if the packing rings in a 
pump are loose ? 

A. Have the pump working at fair speed and put 
the hand on the air inlet to see if the air is drawn in full 
stroke. Try this on both strokes, and if air is drawn in 
only during a part of each stroke, the rings are loose. 

Q. What lift should the receiving and discharge 
valves have ? 

A. ^ f of an inch. 

Q. What will cause a pump to heat ? 

A. Too small lift of air valves, racing a pump, loose 
air piston-packing rings, using a small main reservoir 
on long trains, packing the piston rod too tight, or 
using so much oil on the air end of the pump that the 
pipe leading from the pump to the main reservoir is 
partly closed by the oil being baked to it. The pipe 
gradually becomes so small, that the friction caused by 
the air being forced through it causes the air to heat* 
This heat spreads to the pump. 

Q. What should be done to cool a hot pump f 
A. Ease up on the speed if running fast, remove cap 
74, and pour a small amount of good oil into the pump. 

Q. If the packing burns out of a pump, can it 
still compress air ? 

A. Yes ; the lower half of the air cylinder will not 
be affected. 

Q. Does compressing air cause it to heat? 

A. Yes; the higher the pressure the greater the 
degree of heat, because of the friction due to forcing the 
air particles closer together. 

Q. What is likely to be the trouble if a pump 
dances ? 



9i-lNCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 143 

A. A leak on the seat of the reversing slide valve or 
a bent reversing stem ; also a burr being worn on the 
reversing plate, thus allowing the button on the stem 
to catch. 

Q. How should a pump be located? 

A. It should be where the engineer will notice it if 
it stops. Under no consideration should it be located 
lower than the main reservoir, as dirt and water would 
stay in the pump. 

Q. How may a pump be cleaned ? 

A. By allowing a solution of lye in hot water to 
work through the pump. The pump should be worked 
slowly and the water caught in a pail before it enters the 
main reservoir. Run the solution through several 
times ; then run clean hot water through to wash out the 
lye, or it will eat the leather gaskets throughout the 
brake system. 

Q. Where does the exhaust pipe connected to the 
pump at Y lead ? 

A. Usually to the smoke box in the engine, but this 
practice is gradually giving way to the better one of 
running the exhaust pipe into the exhaust passage from 
the main cylinder to the stack. This latter method 
almost does away with the draught on the fire caused by 
the pump exhaust thus saving fuel, and the pump makes 
very little noise in working. Some engines are piped 
to carry the pump exhaust up over the cab, but this is 
awkward, noisy, and keeps the cab dirty. 

Q. What effect would be produced if the gasket 
under the top head leaked? 

A. If the leak were between the two ports, one 
leadihg to the top and the other to the bottom of the 
main piston, the pump would stop. 



i 4 4 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



The accompanying table shows heat due to compres- 
sion. This heat depends upon the initial temperature. 
The rise in temperature is due to the heat of compres- 
sion. 

Temperature of air before compression 
compressed to 



ion 
J 5 


lbs. 


6o° 

i77° 


90° 

212° 


3° 

45 
6o 

75 


it 
ii 
ii 

ii 


255° 

3*7° 

369° 
416° 


294° 
362° 

417° 
465° 


90 


tt 


455° 


507° 


!05 

120 


a 
a 


49o° 
524° 


545° 
580° 



EIGHT-INCH PUMP. 

Q. State the principal difference, aside from that 
of size, between the 8 and g\-inch piimps. 

A. It is in the valve motion ; that of the 9^-inch 
pump is simpler, easier to get at for repair, and less 
likely to get out of order. 

Piston 23 (Fig. 38), called the reversing piston, is not 
found in the 9^-inch pump (Plate VII). 

Q. Are the air ends of the pumps alike? 

A. In principle, yes ; but the location of the air 
valves and their size are somewhat different, although 
the operation is the same. 

Q. What lift do the air valves of the 8-inch 
pump have? 

A. The receiving should have | and the discharge 
3%-inch lift. 

Q As the steam e7iters the pump at X(jFi^.j8) } 
where is it free to pass f 

A. Into chamber m and also through port // into a 
port not shown which leads to cavity e y the reversing 
slide-valve chamber. 




TO MAIN RESERVOIR 

53 



AIR INLET 

Fig. 38.— 8-Inch Pump. 



8-Inxh Pump. 147 

Q. Does this chamber always contain the same 
pressure as chamber m ? 
A. Always. 

Q. The pistons 7 {Fig* 38) are of unequal size, 
and the upper piston 7 and piston 23 are the same 
size. What happens when steam enters chambers 
M and e with the reversing slide valve in its pres- 
ent position ? 

A. Steam is admitted through port a on top of piston 
23 ; this pressure balances the upward pressure on the 
top piston 7, and the pressure acting down on the small 
piston 7 causes all three pistons to travel down to the 
positions shown in the cut. 

Q. Explain the passage of steam with the valve 
motion in this position. 

A. Steam passes through small ports in bushing 
26 (Fig. 38), just above the small piston 7, underneath 
piston 10, forcing it up. At the same time the top end 
of the steam cylinder is connected with the atmosphere 
through the upper ports of bushing 25, the port /, as 
shown by the dotted lines, down through g and out at Y. 

Q. When the piston moves up so that the re- 
versing plate 18 strikes the lug n, the reversing 
slide valve 16 is forced up. What is done by rais- 
ing this valve ? 

A. The exhaust port in the slide valve connects 
port b leading to chamber d with port c which leads into 
the exhaust port /, and we have no pressure left on top 
of piston 23. 

Q. With no pressure acting down on piston 23 
{Fig. 38 s ), what happens ? 

A. On account of the greater area of the upper 
piston 7, both pistons 7 are raised. 



148 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Explain the passage of steam with pistons 7 
moved up. 

A. Steam from chamber m now passes through the 
lower ports of bushing 25 on top of the main piston io, 
forcing it down, and the steam on the under side of 
piston 10 passes out of the lower holes of bushing 26 
into port/', and out through the exhaust port F. 

Q. When piston 10 reaches the bottom of its 
stroke, how is the pump reversed? 

A. The reversing plate 18 strikes the button at the 
end of the reversing stem 17 and moves the reversing 
slide valve 16 down to the position as shown in the cut. 

Q. What will cause blows in this pump ? 

A. Loose packing rings in the main steam piston io, 
piston 23, or pistons 7, a bad seat on the reversing slide 
valve, or the top of stem 17 being a loose fit in the cap 
nut 20 (Fig. 38). 

Q. What are the other troubles of the pump f 

A. They are in principle so nearly allied to those of 
the 9 J-inch pump that a study of them would be prac- 
tically a review of the work discussed in the study of 
that pump. In all cases of pump trouble, if one keeps 
in mind the principle of the operation of the pump, a 
little thought will suffice to locate the defects. 



WBSTINGHOUSE BRIGHT AND LEFT-HAND » 
NINE AND ONE-HALF INCH PUMP. 

Q. What is the difference between the nine and 
one-half inch pump shown in Fig. jp and the one 
shown in Figs. J5 and 36. 
. A. The operation of the two pumps is exactly the 
same ; the parts are identical with the exception of the 
steam and exhaust connections, and the drain cock put 
in to drain any accumulation in port A. 

Q. How do ttte steam and exhaust connections 
differ. 

A. Both, as shown in Fig. 39, are extended through 
to the other side of the pump for convenience in piping 
in case it is desirable to locate the pump on the left side 
of the engine. 

Q. Explain the proper use of the connections as 
shown in Fig. jp. 

A. A is the steam inlet and B the steam exhaust. 

Q. What must be done if this pump should be 
changed to the right side of the engine f 

A. Remove plug at C and fittings at A and exchange 
them ; the same should be done with the plug at D and 
fittings at B. Cwill then be the steam inlet and D the 
steam exhaust. 

Q. Explain the operation of this pump. 

A. A description of the operation of this pump 
would be but a repetition of what is said in the chapter 
concerning the standard nine and one-half inch pump. 



15° 



Air-Brake Catechism, 



" JA 




Fig. 39.— Right and Left-Hand Pump, 



WESTINGHOUSE ELEVEN-INCH PUMP. 

Q. W hat are the dimensions of cylinders and 
the stroke of the eleven-inch as compared with the 
nine and one-half inch pump ? 

A. The nine and one-half inch pump is 9^2" x 9^" x 
10" stroke, as compared with 11" xn"x 12" stroke 
with the eleven-inch pump. 

Q. What arc the comparative efficiencies of the 
two pn?nps f 

A. With a piston speed of 83 feet per minute and 
operating continuously, the efficiency of the eleven-inch 
pump is about 33 per cent, greater than the nine and 
one-half inch pump ; under the above conditions the 
larger pump will compress 40 cu. ft. of free air while 
the nine and one-half inch pump compresses 30 cu. ft. 
These figures, however, are for a very slow pump speed, 
and these capacities can, if desired, be greatly exceeded^ 
but in the same proportion. 

Q. Explain the operation of the eleven-inch 
pump. 

A. Although some of the parts are slightly different 
in construction, the operation is the same as that of the 
nine and one-half inch pump described in the chapter 
beginning on page 132. 

Q. Name the different parts of the pump. 



IS2 



Air-Bra k e Catechism. 



A. 3648. Tophead. 
3649. Steam Cylinder. 

Center Piece. 

Air Cylinder. 

Lower Head. 

Steam Piston and Rod. 

Air Piston, complete. 
1687. Piston Packing Ring. 
1590. Piston-Rod Nut. 

Piston-Rod Jam Nut. 

Piston-Rod Cotter Pin. 

Reversing- Valve Plate. 

Reversing- Valve Plate Bolt 

Reversing- Valve Rod. 

Reversing Valve. 

Reversing -Valve-Chamber 
Bush. 

Reversin g -Valve-Chamber 
Valve- Mem Bush. 

Reversing -Valve-Chamber 
Cap. 

Main- Valve Bush. 

Main Valve. 

Large Main- Valve Piston. 

Large Main- Valve - Piston 
Packing Ring. 

Small Main- Valve-Piston. 

Small Main - Valve - Piston 
Packing Ring. 

Main- Valve Stem. 

Main- Valve- Stem Nut. 

Main Slide Valve. 

Right Main- Valve Cylinder 
Head. 

1600. Left Main- Valve Cylinder 
Head. 

Air Valve. 

Air- Valve Seat. 

Air- Valve Cage. 

Valve- Chamber Cap. 

Steam- Exhaust Stud. 

Steam-Exhaust Union Nut. 

Steam-Exhaust Union 
Swivel. 



3650. 
3653. 

3654. 
3660. 



*59i- 
1589. 
1688. 
1689. 
1709. 
1706. 
1700. 

1 701. 

1710, 

1595. 
3647. 
3645. 
1695. 

3646. 
1694. 

1696. 
2052. 
1707. 
1599- 



1705. 
1698. 
1708. 
3652. 
2682. 
2684. 
2683. 



3315. 
1885. 
1886. 
1882. 
1S83. 
1884. 

1702. 
1704. 

1703. 
1916. 
3661. 

3662. 



1 7 12. 

1713. 

1714. 
1887. 
2494. 
1950. 

1715- 
3716. 

1.759- 

1919. 

2482. 

2485. 
2483. 
2481. 

3269. 
3270. 
1900. 

3682. 



Pipe Bushing (1 >£" x 1% ). 

One-inch Steam-Pipe Stud. 

Governor Union Nut. 

Air-Discharge fc-tud. 

Air-Discharge Union Nut. 

Air-Discharge Union 
Swivel. 

Stuffing Box. 

Stuffing- Box Nut. 

Stuffing- Box Gland. 

Air-Cylinder Oil Cup. 

Short Tee-Head Bolt (%u x 
2jfcf") and Hexagon Nut. 

Long Tee-Plead Bolt {%" x 
3 3 A") and Hexagon Nut. 

Upper Steam-Cvlinder Gas- 
ket. 

Lower Steam-C vlinder Gas- 
ket. 

Upper Air Cylinder Gasket. 

Lower Air Cylinder Gasket. 

Drain Cock. 

Air Strainer. 

One-inch Steam-Pipe 
Sleeve. 

Left Main-Valve-Head Gas- 
ket. 

Right Main - Valve - Head 
Gasket. 

Main- Valve-Head Bolt (#* 

Cylinder-Head Plug. 

Packing and Cap-Nut 
Wrench. 

Air-Valve-Seat Wrench. 

Air-Valve-Cage W 7 rench. 

Wrench for Nuts on Tee- 
Head Bolts. 

Short Cap Screw {%" x 2"). 

Long Cap Screw (%" x 1%' '). 

One and One-half-inch Pipe 
Plug. 

Two-inch Pipe Plug. 



Q. Two sets of plugs are shown on either side 
of the steam cylinder ; of what use are they ? 

A. These plugs are for convenience in piping the 
pump. Plugs 1900 are at opposite ends of the same 



PLATE VIII.-WESTINGHOUSE ELEVEN-INCH PUMP. 




Westinghouse Eleven-Inch Pump. 



i-3 



steam port. - Plugs 3683 are at opposite ends of the 
exhaust port. The openings are used according to 
which side of the engine the pumps are located, and 
provide a means of making the piping simple, since a 
steam port opening is toward the cab and an exhaust 
opening toward the front end, if placed on either the 
engineer's or fireman's side. 

Q. Do the nine and one-half inch pumps liai'c 
this provision f 

A. The one usually placed on the engineer's side, 
and known as the Right-Hand Pump, does not, while the 
Right and Left-Hand Pump, which may be used on 
either side, does. 



WESTINGHOUSE PUMP GOVERNORS. 

The accompanying pump governor cuts represent the 
new and the old style of governors 

Q. Explain the duty of spring 41 {Fig. 42). 

A. The tension of the spring 41 is regulated by the 
cap nut 40 and holds down the piston 43, which in 
turn holds the small pin valve on its seat. 

The fitting 45 is connected to main reservoir pressure 
if used with the G 6 brake valve, and with the train 
line if used with the D 8 brake valve. When the pressure 
entering at 45 and acting on the under side of the piston 
43 is greater than the tension of the spring 41, the 
piston is forced up, thus lifting the pin valve, to which 
arrow 42 points, from its seat. 

Q. What effect does unseating this pin valve 
have ? 

A. It allows air pressure to reach the top of piston 
28 (Fig. 42), forcing it down and closing valve 26. 

Q. What effect does closing valve 26 have ? 
A. It shuts off the steam supply and stops the 
pump. 

Q. At the same time that air forces piston 28 
down, where else does it go and with what effect ? 

A. It passes out of the small relief port, at which the 
arrow 37 points, to the atmosphere. This leakage is 
sufficient to keep the pump working slowly, so that 
steam will not condense and be thrown out of the stack 
when the pump starts again. 



Wbstinghouse Pump Governors! 



*55 



Q. What is effected by any reduction of t lie main 
reservoir pressttre ? 



TO MAIN- RESERVOIR 
CONNECTION 26 ON \ 
EN'QTNEERSS BRAKE 
VADVE 




Fio. 42. — Improved Pump Governor. 



156 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A . Any reduction of main reservoir pressure allows 
the spring 41 to force the pin valve to its seat, and what 
air still remains on top of piston 28 escapes through the 
relief port 37, and, with no pressure on top of piston 28, 
the spring 31 raises the piston 28 and valve 26, allowing 
steam from the boiler to reach the pump. 

Q. Of what use is the spring under the head 
of the pin valve? 

A. To hold the valve up when piston 43 is raised. 
Were it not for the spring, the pin valve would remain 
seated. 

Q. If any air should leak by piston 28, or any 
steam should leak by the stem of the valve 26 into 
the cavity under piston 28, how would it escape ? 

A. There is a port in the casing 32 connected to a 
drip pipe which leads to the atmosphere. 

Q. What effect would- be noticed if this drip 
pipe became clogged with dirt or were frozen shut y 
when there was a leakage of steam up under the 
governor piston ? 

A. Piston 28 could not be forced down, and the pump 
would not stop working until the main reservoir pressure 
was about equal to boiler pressure. 

Q. What would be the effect if the release port 
37 (JF*g* 42) were closed by dirt ? 

A. The pump would be very slow in starting to 
work after once stopping. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because, when the pin valve closed, the cavity 
above piston 28 would be filled with main reservoir 
pressure, which could escape only by leaking by the 
packing ring 29 and out to the atmosphere through 
the drip pipe. 



Wkstinghousk Pump Governors. 157 

Q. What effect would dirt on the seat of the 
pin valve have ? 

A. It would make a constant blow out of the relief 
port, and if air could leak in faster than it could get 
out of the relief port, the pump would either stop or 
work very slowly, even if the pump throttle were wide 
open. 

0. Why would it work slowly f 

A. Because the pressure on piston 28 may force the 
valve 26 partly shut and allow only a small amount of 
steam to reach the pump. If the leak were bad enough, 
the pump would be stopped entirely. 

Q. What effect ivould be noticed if the pin valve 
became gummed so that it would not seat centrally ? 

A. Air would pass down on piston 28, and the 
action of the pump would be the same as just described, 
with dirt on the seat of this valve. 

Q. What would be the effect if the casing in 
which the governor piston works should become 
badly worn, and a worn ring 29 were replaced with 
a new one without truing the casing? 

A. When piston 28 was forced down a little farther 
than usual, it might stick, causing the pump to stop. 
A jar on the governor might start the pump. 

Q. What is the difference between the improved 
\ and the 1 -inch governors? 

A. Their operation is identical, but there is a dif- 
ference in size, as one is used with the 8 and the other 
with the 9|-inch pump. 

Q. Explain the operation of the old pump 
governor. 

A. It is the same as that of the improved governor, 
excepting that, after the pin valve is closed, the air in 



i5« 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



the chamber above the piston, instead of escaping to the 
atmosphere through a relief port, passes by the packing 
ring 24 and out to the atmosphere through a drip pipe 
connected to the port, shown by the dotted lines in the 
chamber under the piston. 




TO BO.J-LER 

Fig. 43— Ou> Styi,e Pump Governor. 

Q. Are the troubles about the same with the 
two governors ? 

A. Yes ; but there was much trouble with the 



Westinghouse Pump Governors* 



T 59 



diaphragm 19 of the old governor which is unknown 
with the new. 

Q. Why was this ? 

A. Because this governor was used chiefly with the 
D 8 valve, and train-line pressure operated the governor. 
With this valve on lap, boiler pressure would be com- 
pressed in the main reservoir, and when this high press- 
ure was thrown into the train line to release brakes, the 
diaphragm 19 would be forced up so high it w T ould 
buckle. 

Q. What effect zvould this have ? 

A. It would destroy the sensitiveness of the gover- 
nor, and the pump w 7 ould be stopped in a very erratic 
manner. The train-line pressure would sometimes be 
too high and at others too low. 

Q. How mas this defect re7nedied in the im- 
proved governor ? 

A. By inspecting the cut of the new governor it 
will be seen that the diaphragm can raise only a very 
little distance when it seats against a brass ring, thus 
doing away with the chance of its buckling. 

Q. Is the new governor moi r e sensitive than the 
old? 

A. Yes, because instead of one diaphragm, like 19 
(Fig. 43) in the old governor, there are two thin dia- 
phragms in the new. 

Q. How much redtiction will cause a governor 
of the improved type to start the pump ? 
A. About half a pound. 

Q. Why was the long slot placed in the stem 16 
of the old governor ? 

A. The governor used to make a buzzing sound, 
and slotting the stem remedied this trouble. 



160 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Does this governor keep the pump working 
slotvly after full pressure is obtained? 
A. No, as there is no relief port. 



THE SWEENEY COMPRESSOR. 

Q. What is the object of the Sweeney device? 
A. To recharge a main reservoir quickly in descend- 
ing very heavy grades when the air pressure is low. 

Q. Explain the parts. 

A. It consists of a pipe running from the steam 
chest to the main reservoir. In the pipe there is a cut- 
out cock, a safety valve, and a non-return check. 

Q. How is it operated ? 

A. By turning the cut-out cock and reversing the 
engine when steam is shut off. The main cylinders 
and pistons act as compressors, and compressed air is 
forced into the steam chest and thence through the pipe 
connection to the main reservoir. 

Q. What is the objection to this device ? 

A. It is extremely handy in case of emergency, such as 
low pressure or the refusal of a pump to work. The 
objection to it is, that smoke, gas, and heat forced into 
the main reservoir burn out gaskets and get the brake 
system very dirty. 



THE WATER BRAKE. 

Q. II hat is the U r ater or La C hate Her Brake t 

A. It is a brake by means of which the equivalent 

effect of reversing an engine is produced ; that is, the 

back pressure on the pistons acts through the pins the 

same as when using steam. 

Q. Is water actually used at the point a 'here the 
work of retardation is accomplished f 

A. No, it is then in the form of wet steam. 

Q. Where does the water used come from / 
A. It is taken from the boiler just above the crown 
sheet. The pressure from above being removed as soon 
as it leaves the boiler it flashes into wet steam. The 
compression to which it is subjected in the cylinders 
produces heat that also tends to change any water into 
steam. 

Q. Is the lubricator shut off when the water 
brake is in use f 

A. No, it should be kept in operation the same as 
when using steam. 

Q. What special care should be taken when 
using steam after the use of the water brake has 
been discontinued? 

A. To avoid throwing water out of the stack steam 
should not be used until the water has had ample time 
to work out. 

Q. Can a water brake be used on either a simple 
or compound engine ? 



The Water Brake. 163 

A. Yes ; Fig. 44 shows its application to a simple 
and Figs. 45 and 46 to a compound engine. 

WATER BRAKE ON SIMPLE ENGINE. 

Q. What part does the water play after it takes 
the form of wet steam f 

A. As the pistons move back and forth the wet 
steam in the exhaust cavities (Fig. 44) is drawn into 
the cylinders. 

Q. How does it escape from the cylinders ? 
A. Through the cylinder cocks. 

Q. If it were not for the wet steam being drawn 
into the cylinders when the engine is reversed, while 
using the water brake, what would happen f 

A. Cinders and smoke w r ould be drawn into the cyl- 
inders and in a short time they would be cut and ruined. 

Q. How should an engineer proceed to put the 
water brake in use f 

A. The cylinder cocks should first be opened and 
should remain open as long as the water brake is in use ; 
the reverse lever should be moved back of the center 
the desired amount and the globe valve (Fig. 44) 
should be opened immediately. 

Q. When should the water brake be put iji use f 
A. When the train is moving slowly. 

Q At how fast a speed is it practical to operate 
a water brake f 

A. It is not generally used at speeds in excess of 14 
to 22 miles per hour. 

Q. How far should the reverse lever be moved 
back of the center? 

A. This depends upon the amount of work that is 



1 64 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




! / 

1/ 

!/ 



^- ^ ~$ieamport// I 

,v- '72xliaust> 

party/ 



^^StearhpoH' ~ 1 



\^port 







M 



Fig. 44. — Water Brake on Simple Engine. 



The Water Brake. 165 

required. The farther back the lever is moved the 
greater the power. 

Q How much should the globe valve (Fig* 44) 
he open to obtain the right amount of steam in the 
cylinders t 

A. It should be adjusted until the steam issuing 
from the cylinder cocks is a dense white. 

Q. What will be the character of escaping steam 
at the cylinder cocks if too little water is being used ? 
A. It will be a light blue in color. 

Q. How can it be told if too much water is being 
used? 

A. Water will be thrown out of the stack. This is 
especially noticeable if the lever is very near the center. 

Q. What is the purpose of the 1132-inch hole 
vdrilled in the 1/2 x 3/8-inch tee ) as indicated (Fig. 
44) f 

A. To permit any condensation to escape. 

Q. In erecting the piping ivhat special care 
should be observed? 

A. Care should be exercised to locate the y 2 n x }i ff 
tee in the center to insure the same amount of water 
reaching each cylinder ; otherwise the tendency would 
be for one side of the locomotive to furnish more 
retarding power than the other. 

THE BALDWIN WATER BRAKE FOR BALDWIN 
COMPOUNDS. 

Q. Does what has been said in general concern- 
ing the water brake for a simple engine also refer 
to the Baldwin Water Brake t 

A. Yes, and with this as with the other, the holding- 



1 66 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




Fig. 45.— Baldwin Water Brake for Compound Engine. 



The Water Brake. 167 

power is due to the engine being run reversed, but in 
full reverse position, the water being used as herein 
explained. 

Q. Explain the cuts {Figs. 45 and 46) referring 
to the water brake for compounds, 

A. Fig. 45 is a side view of the front end and Fig. 46 
is an end view. When water is permitted to enter pipe 
A (Figs. 45 and 46) it finally reaches a a, where it enters 
the exhaust passages. D (Fig. 46) is a gate or back 
pressure valve, by means of which the engineer can 
regulate the amount of back pressure against which the 
pistons will operate, E is a safety valve located in the 
live steamways to permit any back pressure above a 
given amount to escape. C (Figs. 45 and 46) are air 
inlet valves, which when necessary permit air to enter 
the cylinders and prevent smoke and cinders from being 
drawn in. B (Fig. 45) is a hinged lid used to close the 
exhaust nozzle. 

Q. Hoiv is the brake put to work? 

A. The initial steps are the same as with the water 
brake on simple engines : open cylinder cocks, put 
reverse lever in extreme backward position, and open 
the water valve. The exhaust nozzle lid B should also 
be closed, and the air inlet valves C be opened. 

Q. Trace the passage of the water or steam. 

A. As air enters the inlet valve C (Fig. 45) it 
mingles with the hot water and steam entering the 
exhaust cavities from a, a. From here it passes by the 
piston valve G and enters the low pressure cylinder. 
When the movement of the piston in the low pressure 
cylinder is reversed this combination of steam, water 
and air, excepting that which escapes at the cylinder 
cocks, is compressed while the other end of the cylinder 
is being filled. The steam being compressed passes by 
piston G and on, as indicated (Fig. 46), into the opposite 



1 68 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




Cf^r&m valve jy^ ^^ ^^. 
mtohve stedmpassagi -j /hf^ ?B into liv 



Elbow for^ 2\i pipe 
' ' 'e steam passage, 
i. S.~o>dy back 




Fig. 46.— Baldwin Water Brake for Compound Engine. 



The Water Brake. 169 

end of the high-pressure cylinder H. On the return 
stroke of the piston it is forced from the high-pressure 
cylinder by the piston valve and 011 into the steam pipe 
■J J, where what does not escape at the back pressure 
valve D accumulates. The safety valves E take care 
of any pressure in excess of a safe amount. 

Q. How is the water brake operated on a two 
cylinder compound of the Schenectady type t 

A. Generally two water pipes are used on account 
of the vast difference in the sizes of the two cylinders, 
and the exhaust valve between the receiver and the low 
pressure exhaust passage is left closed while using the 
water brake. Otherwise the water brake is used practi- 
cally the same as on a simple engine. 



WESTINGHOUSE WHISTLE SIGNAL. 

Q. What form of signal was used before the 
compressed air signaling apparatus was invented ? 

A. The old bell rope and gong signal, such as is now 
used on freight trains. 




THE A30VE DIA9RAM IS SIMPLY ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE METHOD 
OF AR3AN3IN3 THE COMPRESSED AIR TRAIN StQNALINS APS>LIAN»£S, 
AND MAY BE MODIFIED AS THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ENGINE DEMANDS. 



Fig. 47, — Signal Equipment for Engine. 



Q. Do all roads use the air signal in passenger 

service ? 

A. Not all, but most roads do. 

Q. What parts of the signaling apparatus are 
found on the engine ? 



Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 171 

A. The strainer, the reducing valve (Fig. 52 or 54), 
the whistle valve (Fig. 51), the whistle (Fig. 53), and 
the pipe connections as shown in Fig. 47. 

Q. What parts are found on the car f 

A. The discharge valve (Fig. 50), the signal cord 
running the length of the car, and the signal-pipe con- 
nections as shown in Fig. 48. 

Q. Where is the discharge valve {Fig. 50) usual- 
ly located ? 

A. As shown in Fig. 48, although it is sometimes 
found inside the car over the door. 

Q. Why is it better placed outside t 
A. When it is so placed the noise of the discharge 
will not affect nervous people. 

Q. How does the car discharge valve work f 
A. The signal pord is attached to the valve in the 
hole of 5 (Fig. 50) ; when the cord is pulled, valve 3 is 
forced from its seat, allowing whistle-line pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is the trouble when there is a constant 
leak from the discharge valve ? 

A. There is dirt on the seat of valve 3 (Fig. 50). 

O. Where is the signal valve {Fig* Ji) located '? 

A. In the cab, where it will not be subjected to 
severe heat or cold. 

Q. Where are the reducing valves {Figs. 32 and 
54) usually placed? 

A. It was formerly customary to locate them out- 
side, next to the main reservoir, but now good prac- 
tice locates them inside the cab where they cannot 
freeze in winter. 



172 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. Which valve is nozv being sent out with all 
new equipment? 

A. The valve represented by Fig. 52, as this is the 
latest, although there are still many like Fig. 54 in use. 

Q. What is the duty of these valves ? 

A. To maintain a constant pressure on the whistle 
Hue. 




Fig. 48.— Location of Signal Apparatus on Coach. 

Q. Explain the action of the reducing valve 
(Fig. 52). 

A. It works exactly like the old style train-line 
governor (Fig. 28), of the F 6 valve already explained. 

Q. Of what use is the plug valve in the upper 
left-hand corner ? 

A. To cut out main reservoir pressure in case we 

wish to take the reducer apart. 



Westixghouse Whistle Signal. 



*73 



Q. What is the object of the air strainer {Fig, 

49)? 

A. To keep any foreign matter from entering the 
reducing valve or signal system, where it may occasion 
an improper response of the signals. 

Q. Of what does this strainer consist f 

A. Of the body 8 (Fig. 49), perforated brass discs 3, 



3 /8 
PIPE TAP 



Fig. 49. — Air Strainer on Engine. 




and the space between these perforated plates is filled 
with cnrled hair. 

Q. Has this strainer ever been used to fulfill an 
office other than as described above f 

A. Yes ; a tee is sometimes inserted between the 
strainer and the reducing valve. A branch of the tee 
is then piped to the pump governor, and the governor 
performs the double duty of keeping foreign matter 
both from the signal system and the pump governor. 

Q. Is any material other than curled hair ever 
used to fill in the space between the perforated 
plates s (Fig. 49) f 

A. Yes ; sponge has been used for this purpose, but 
the results obtained were not satisfactory. The hair 
seems to collect the dirt better and it is much easier to 
clean than the sponge, as it permits of a freer separation, 



174 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. Explain the action of the old reducing valve 

(Fig- 54\ 

A. The top spring has a tension determined by the 
pressure to be carried on the whistle line. This spring 
holds piston 6 down as long as the tension of the spring 
is greater than the pressure underneath the rubber 
diaphragm 7. 




Fig. 50.— Car Discharge Valve. 

As long as the piston is down, valve 5 is held from its 
seat, allowing main reservoir pressure to feed in as 
indicated. It passes by valve 5, up under the piston, 
and into the signal line as indicated, until the pressure 
on the whistle line and underneath the diaphragm 7 is 
greater than the tension of the spring over the piston 
6, when the spring is compressed, allowing piston 6 to 
travel up, and spring 10 raises valve 5 to its seat, 
shutting off the further passage of air from the main 
reservoir to the whistle line. 

Q. Where is the whistle {Fig. 53) located ? 
A. In the cab, as near the engineer as convenient. 
O. To what is it connected ? 



Westixghouse Whistle Signal. 



/o 



A. To a pipe which leads from the signal valve as 
indicated (Fig. 51). 

Q. What is its use f 

A. As the signal or whistle valve (Fig. 51) operates, 
the air leaving this valve escapes throngh the whistle 
(Fig. 53). The blast signals the engineer. 

Q. Where does the air come from that supplies 
the signal system ? 

A. From the main reservoir on the engine. 

Q. Explain the passage of the air from the 
main reservoir through the signal system. 

A. It first passes from the main reservoir (Fig. 47) 
throngh the strainer and redncing valve. After leaving 
the reducing valve there is a tee in the pipe, one branch 
of which leads to the signal valve (Fig. 51) and the 
other back into the train. Under each car (Fig. 48) 
there is a strainer in a tee, and a branch of the whistle 
line goes to the discharge valve (Fig. 50). 

Q. Explain the operation of the signal valve 
{Fig. 5/) in charging. 

A. After the air passes from the main reservoir and 
through the reducing valve, it is free to go back into the 
train and also enter the signal valve at Y. It then 
passes through the contracted port d into cavity A on 
top of the rubber diaphragm 12, and around through 
port c. The lower half of the stem 10 is three sided, so 
that the air can pass up to where the stem looks to be 
tight in the bushing 9. This joint is not tight, but 
sufficiently so to allow the air to feed by into chamber 
B very slowly. The reducing valve is adjusted to forty 
pounds, and if we wait a short time the forty pounds 
will equalize on both sides of the diaphragm 12 ; that is, 
there will be forty pounds in each chamber A and B } as 
there is also throughout the whistle line on the train. 



t 7 6 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. What does the conductor do if lie wishes te 
signal the engineer ? 

A. He pulls the signal cord in the car. 
Q. What is effected by this f 

A. It makes a sudden reduction of whistle-line press- 
ure through the car discharge valve (Fig. 50). 

Q. What is the effect ? 




X \l TO WHISTLE 

Fig. 51.— -Signal Valve. 

A. This starts a reduction wave throughout the 
whistle line, and in the signal valve it is first felt in 
chamber A, on top cf diaphragm 12. The pressure in 
chamber i?, being unable to equalize quickly with that 
in chamber A, on account of the snug fit of the stem 10 
in bushing 9, is now greater than the pressure in cham- 
ber A. The diaphragm 12 and the stem 10 attached to 
it are lifted, uncovering the port in the bushing 7. The 
stem is lifted sufficiently to allow air from chamber B 
and the air coming through port c to pass out at e and 



Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 



L 77 



through the pipe to the whistle (Fig. 53), causing a 
blast as long as the stem 10 is off its seat. 

The same wave reduction that started the signal valve 
into operation also opened the reducing valve (Fig. 52 or 
54) to allow main reservoir pressure to supply the whistle 
line. 




Fig. 5 2 .— -Improved Reducing Vai,ve. 

A wave of increased pressure now takes the place of 
the reduction wave, and air passing into chamber A of 
the signal valve forces the diaphragm 12 down, causing 
the whistle to cease blowing. 

Q. How long must we wait before again trying 
to put the signal valve in operation ? 

A. Until the pressures have had time to equalize in 
chambers A and B (Fig. 51). 



i 7 8 



Air-Brakk Catechism, 



Q. How many seconds should we wait ? 
A. Usually two at least, and three is better. 

Q. Give a rule by which we can pull the whistle 
signal cord in the car and gain the best results. 




Fig. 53.— Signal Whistle. 

A. When pulling the cord, make an exhaust of one 
second, and then wait three seconds to allow the whistle 
to cease blowing and the pressures to equalize through- 
out the signal system before making another reduction. 

Q. In pulling the signal cord, what should al- 
ways be borne in mind ? 

A. That it is not the amount of reduction but the 
suddenness that causes the whistle to blow. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
SIGNAL SYSTEM. 

Q. If no air gets into the whistle line when an 
engine is coupled to a train, and we know that the 




TO MAIN RESERVOIR 



Fig. 54-— -Old Style Reducing Valve. 

cocks in the signal line stand properly and the hose 
are in order, what should we look at first ? 

A. The plug cock in the reducing valve (Fig. 52 | ; 



180 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

or, if the weather is cold and the reducer is outside, it 
may be frozen. 

Q. What else might cause this trouble with the 
new reducer {Fig. 52) ? 

A. It may be that the small taper port in the re- 
ducer (Fig. 5 2), where the main reservoir pressure enters, 
is plugged shut or the strainer may be blocked. 

Q. What will close this port ? 

A. Oil from the air end of the pump and the corro- 
sion from the inside of the pipes. 

Q. What is the trouble if the signal cord is 
pulled in the car and no air issues from the car dis- 
charge valve ? 

A. The cut-out cock (Fig. 48) in the saloon has 
very likely been closed. 

Q. Give conditions that would result in the air 
whistle not responding. 

A. A dirty strainer in the tee under the car where 
the branch pipe to the car discharge valve couples to the 
main signal line ; the strainer in the car discharge valve, 
as used in the old equipment, being dirty ; port d (Fig. 
51) being stopped up ; a too loose fit of stem 10 (Fig. 51) 
in bushing 9 ; a baggy diaphragm 12 (Fig. 51), or a hole 
in it ; the bowl of the whistle (Fig. 53) being closed with 
scouring material, or the bell of the whistle being im- 
properly adjusted ; a reduction that took enough air 
from the whistle line but did not take it fast enough, or, 
as explained before, the reducer might be frozen. 

Q. Why would the whistle not respond if port 
d {Fig. S 1 ) were closed ? 

A. No air could reach the whistle. 

Q. Why, with a loose fit to stem 10 {Fig, 5/) in 
bushing Q would the whistle not respond f 



Signal System— Peculiarities and Troubles 181 

A. If the reduction were not made sufficiently quick 
with the car discharge valve, especially on a long train, 
the friction of the air passing through the pipe would 
tend to decrease the suddenness of the reduction, so that, 
when the wave reached the signal valve, the reduction 
might be so weak that, if stem 10 were a loose fit in 
bushing 9, the air in chambers A and B might equalize 
without raising diaphragm 12 (Fig- 51). 

Q. Why would a baggy or stretched diaphragm 
12 {Fig. 51) cause the whistle not to respond? 

A. When the reduction is made on the signal line, 
a reduction is made in chamber A of the signal valve, 
leaving the pressure in chamber B greater. If the 
diaphragm is bagged, the pressure in chamber B lifts the 
diaphragm, but the stem 10 is not moved. 

Q. What causes this diaphragm to bag? 

A. The use of poor rubber, or oil from the pump 
working through on the rubber, causing it to decay. 
A diaphragm is occasionally found with a hole rotted 
through it, allowing chambers A and B to be directly 
connected. 

Q. What may cause a whistle to respond only 
once when the conductor pulls the cord twice ? 

A. He may have pulled the cord the second time 
before the whistle stopped blowing the first, thus getting 
one long blow, or he may have made the second dis- 
charge before the pressures in chambers A and B had 
become equalized. 

Q. What will happen if dirt gets on the seat of 
valve 4 {Fig* 32), or the corresponding valve in 
Fig. 54? 

A. The valves cannot close, and we will get main 
reservoir pressure of ninety pounds on the whistle line. 

Q. What effect has this ? 



182 Air-1)Raki; Catechism. 

A. The whistle is likely to blow, especially on a 
short train, when the brakes are released ; the air whistle 
on the engine will screech when used ; and, if the stem 
10 in the signal valve is a little loose in bushing 9 (Fig. 
51), the whistle is likely to blow two or three times 
for one reduction at the car discharge valve ; there will 
be a stronger exhaust from the car discharge valve 
than usual, and hose are more likely to burst. 

Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow when the 
brakes arc released, if there is main reservoir press- 
ure on the whistle line ? 

A. Because to release brakes the main reservoir 
pressure is thrown into the train line. This makes the 
pressure in the main reservoir less than that in the 
whistle line, and, on account of the dirt on the seat of the 
valve 4 (Fig. 52), the whistle-line pressure feeds back into 
the main reservoir, and the reduction thus made on the 
signal line causes the air whistle to blow. 

Q. Why, with this trouble, is the whistle more 
likely to sound on an engine alone than with a train, 
when the brakes are released? 

A. With an engine alone there is but a small volume 
of air on the signal line, and the signal-line pressure 
feeding back into the main reservoir would cause a more 
sudden reduction than if the signal line were longer and 
the volume greater, as on a train. 

Q. Why zvill the air whistle on the engine 
screech when used ? 

A. Because the bell is adjusted to be used with only 
a forty- pound pressure instead of ninety. 

Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow two or 
three times with one reduction from the car discharge 
valve, if main reservoir pressure is on the whistle 



Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles 183 

line and the stern 10 is loose in bushing 9 (J 7 ^- 
51) of the signal valve ? 

A. Because a reduction at the car discharge valve 
starts the signal valve in operation, and the reducer can- 
not feed air into the whistle line properly to cause the 
signal valve to close until the signal-line pressure is 
below forty pounds. The tendency for the pressure to 
fluctuate in chambers A and B, due to the loose fit of the 
stem 10, causes the diaphragm to bounce and the whistle 
to respond two or three times. 

Q. If an engineer wishes to know how much 
pressure he has on his signal line, and he has no 
gauge with which to test it, how can he determine 
it? 

A. Shut off the pump and open the bleed cock on 
the main reservoir, then get up in the cab and watch 
the red hand. When the whistle blows, the red hand 
represents a trifle less pressure than is being carried on 
the whistle line. 

Q, Why does the whistle blow ? 

A. Because, when the main reservoir pressure is 
drained below the pressure on the whistle line, the press- 
ure feeds from the whistle line back into the main 
reservoir, causing a reduction of the whistle-line pressure, 
and this usually causes the whistle to blow. 

Q. What is likely to make a whistle give one 
long blast ? 

A. A tight fit in bushing 9 of stem 10 (Fig. 51). 

Q. Why was the new reducer gotten up ? 

A. To have one that would be more sensitive than 
the old one and would feed leaks more promptly, thus 
doing away with the chance of the whistle being blown 
by a small leak. 



184 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What will cause a whistle to sing constantly ? 

A. Dirt on the seat of stem 10 in bushing 7 (Fig. 51). 

Q. Why may jars cause a whistle to blow ? 

A. Oil baking upon diaphragm 12 of the signal 
valve makes it rigid, and a jar will sometimes shake the 
stem 10 (Fig. 51) from its seat. 

Q. What would we do to increase or decrease the 
pressure on the whistle line with the new reducer ? 

A. Screw up on the bottom nut to increase it, and 
down to decrease it. 

Q. What with the old reducer ? 

A. Put in a stififer spring or put a washer under the 
old one. 

Q. What are the two holes for in the upper 
part of the old reducer ? 

A. To allow any air to escape to the atmosphere 
that gets by the diaphragm 7. 



WESTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE. 

Q. Why was the introduction of the high-speed 
drake necessary f 

A. The call by the traveling public for higher train 
speed rendered it necessary to insure safety of lives and 
property. 

Q. Hozv much more efficient is it than the 
ordinary quick-action brake ? 
A. About thirty per cent. 

Q. What class of trains uses this brake f 
A. It is being introduced very generally in both 
local and through passenger train service on the princi- 
pal trunk lines. 

Q. What percentage of braking power to the 
light weight of a passenger car is generally used 
with the ordinary quick-action brake f 

A. Ninety per cent. 

Q. What percentage is used with the high-speed 
brake ? 

A. About one hundred and thirty per cent, if the 
cylinder pressure is figured as 88 pounds, and ninety 
per cent, with a 6opound cylinder pressure. 

Q. How can such a high braking power be used 
without flattening wheels ? 

A. Because it is only used when the train is moving 
at very fast speed, and an automatic reducing valve gradu- 
ally reduces the brake-cylinder pressure, so that when 
the speed of the train has been slackened, the brake- 
cylinder pressure has also been gradually reduced to the 



1 86 Air-Brake Catechism. 

6opound pressure limit as used with the ordinary quick- 
action brake. 

Q. Why is it safe to use a higher braking power 
on wheels when the train is running fast ? 

A. Because the faster the wheels turn, the greater is 
the inertia of the wheels, which the friction of the 
brake shoes has to overcome before they will cease 
revolving. The Westinghouse-Galton tests, made in 
England in 1878, proved that the faster the tread of 
the wheel moved against the brake shoe, the less the 
friction between the two. As the speed decreases the 
friction increases, the friction between the wheel and 
the rail remaining about constant, regardless of the 
speed of the train. 

Q. What train-line and auxiliary pressures are 
carried with the high-speed brake f 
A. One hundred and ten pounds. 

Q. At what pressure do the auxiliary and 
brake cylinder eqttalize when the brake is full set 
in emergency, tising one hundred and ten pounds 
auxiliary pressure t 

A. About eighty-eight pounds. 

O. What reduces this eighty-eight pounds to 
sixty pounds , the safe pressure for slow speeds f 

A. The automatic reducing valve shown in the 
accompanying cut (Fig. 55). 

Q. Explain the action of the reducing valve. 

A. When air is in the brake cylinder it is free to 
reach the top of piston 4 of the reducing valve. 

As long as the tension of the spring 1 1 is greater than 
the brake-cylinder pressure on top of the piston, the 
slide valve 8 remains in the position shown. 

When the brake is full set, the pressure in the cylin- 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 187 




1/2 PIPE TAP" S* TO ERAKE CYLINDER 



p IG# - 5 _ — High-Speed Automatic Reducing Valve. 



188 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

der being* greater than the tension of the spring, the 
piston 4 is forced down and carries the slide valve with 
it, thus opening port b into port a } allowing brake- 
cylinder pressure to escape to the atmosphere. 

The apex of the triangular port b points up. If the 
slide valve 8 is drawn down a little, as in a service 
application, port b has a wide opening into port a, 
allowing cylinder pressure to escape quickly. The high 
cylinder pressure in emergency forces piston 4 down 
full stroke, and cylinder pressure escapes slowly through 
the small end of port b. As cylinder pressure lessens, 
spring 11 raises piston 4 and slide valve 8, opening port 
b wider, thus releasing air faster ; the slow exhaust 
ensues with a high, and quick exhaust with low train 
speeds. Spring 11 is adjusted to sixty pounds on pas- 
senger cars and sixty on engines and tenders. 

Q. What is necessary to make a liigh-speed 
brake out of the present quick-action equipment? 
A. Simply the addition of the reducing valve. 

0. What change has to be made on engines? 

A. A duplex pump governor is added, two train-line 
governors are used, and reducing valves are connected 
to the tender and driver brake cylinders. 

Q. Why are two train-line and a duplex pump 
governor used? 

A. Only two governors are used at a time. They 
are so arranged with cut-out cocks that the engine may 
be used with the " high-speed " brake or with the 
ordinary quick-action brake. 

Q. At the same speeds, in how much less distance 
can a stop be made zvith the High-Speed than with 
the ordinary Quick-Action Brake ? 

A. About 30 per cent. 



Westixghouse High-Speed Brake. 




POSITION OF PORTS 
EMERGENCY STOP 

Fig. 56. 



POS'TION OF PORTS 

SERVICE STOP 

PRESSURE EXCEEDING 60 POUNDS 

IN BRAKE CYLINDER 



Fig. 57. 




POSITION OFPORTSN 
RELEASE 

Fig. 58. 



Cross Sections Showing Upper Part of High-Speed 
Reducing Valve in its Different Positions. 



190 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. With an auxiliary reservoir pressure of 
no pounds , is a higher cylinder pressure developed 
than when jo pounds is used if a 5, 10 or 15-pound 
service reduction of train-line pressure is made? 

A. With the customary piston travel of from six to 
eight inches the same cylinder pressure would result in 
either case. 

Q. Would the cylinder pressure developed be the 
same with a gradual train-line reduction of 22 
pounds ? 

A. No, the cylinder pressure would be greater when 
using a train-line pressure of no pounds. 

O. Give a rule which covers this point. 

A. As long as train-line reductions are not continued 
after the equalization point between the cylinder and 
reservoir when the 70-pound train-line pressure has been 
reached, the same cylinder pressure will result in either 
case. If, however, the reductions are continued beyond 
this point, a gain is made when using the higher pres- 
sure, and it can be raised until such time as the High- 
Speed Reducing Valve operates to discharge air to the 
atmosphere. 

Q. Why is it that the cylinder pressure would 
be the same in either case with a service reduction of 
10 pounds zvhen employing either a jo or no-pound 
pressure t 

A. By making the proper calculations it will be 
found that in either case the same number of cubic 
inches of free -air has passed to the brake cylinder. In 
other words, the same number of cubic feet of free air 
are used by reducing the auxiliary reservoir pressure 
from 70 to 60 as from no to 100 pounds. 

A 20-pound reduction, using a 70-pound train-line 
pressure, would equalize the reservoir and cylinder 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 



[91 




192 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pressures at 50 pounds with a certain piston travel ; 
using the 110-pound train-line pressure and making a 
20-pound reduction would give a cylinder pressure of 50 
pounds, but there would still be 90 pounds in the 
auxiliary reservoir ; hence, with a further reduction of 
train-line pressure the triple valve would permit more 
reservoir pressure to pass to ' the brake cylinder, thus 
increasing its pressure. 

0. Do the brakes apply any quicker in service 
with the High-Speed than with the Quick-Action 
II rake f 

A. Yes. 

Q. Explain the answer to the last question. 

A. On account of the higher pressure used the air 
passes through the ports quicker from the auxiliary 
reservoir to the brake cylinder. Practically the same 
effect is produced as is done by increasing the boiler 
pressure of an engine, which added pressure produces a 
corresponding quickness of action. It is this quickness 
of action which has created the general impression that 
a light reduction of train-line pressure produces a 
greater cylinder pressure when using a 1 10-pound 
instead of a 70-pound pressure. This is a mistaken 
idea, except as there might be a very slight difference 
because of the piston moving out and closing the leakage 
groove quicker with the high than with the low 
pressure. 

Q. Which method produces the best results in 
making station stops with the High-Speed Brake t 

A. The two application method, the same as should 
be used when employing the 70-pound train-line pressure. 

Q. If, when using the 110-pound train-line 
pressure, a sudden reductio7i of pressure is made and 
the brake valve handle is returned to lap, at what 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 



i93 



5! 

I 



I 

o 

C 
o 

o 

3 

a 



8 

i 

a. 

§ 



8 

PQ 

W 
to 
D 
O 



s 



I 

p 

to 

to 



to 
o 

s 



to 

i 

S 



o 

2 



(9 






to 



194 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pressure will the train-line auxiliary and brake 
cylinder equalize t 

A. Approximately 88 pounds. 

Q. The triple valve is now in emergency position 
and the auxiliary and cylinder pressures are escaping 
to the atmosphere through the reducing valve, which 
closes when the pressure in it has been depleted to 60 
pounds. The train-line pressure is still approxi- 
mately 8j pounds ; will this pressure not force the 
triple piston to release position and release the brake 
entirely ? 

A. No ; as soon as the reservoir pressure is slightly 
less than the train-line pressure, plus the tension of the 
graduating spring, the triple piston is forced to lap posi- 
tion, in which position no more reservoir pressure can 
reach the brake cylinder. The reducing valve continues 
to reduce cylinder pressure until it closes when this 
pressure has reached 60 pounds. 

A corresponding action takes place in response to a 
gradual and heavv train-line reduction, sufficient to 
cause the reducing valve to open and the triple piston 
to move to emergency position and compress the gradu- 
ating spring. 

Q. Is the cylinder pressure reduced, to 60 pounds 
under these conditions f 
A. Yes. 

Q. What is a great advantage of the High-Speed 
Brake other than those already outlined? 

A. Two full service reductions of 20 pounds and 
releases can be made without permitting any recharge 
of the auxiliary reservoir and there will still be 70 
pounds pressure available with which to stop, if neces- 
sary. 



PLATE IX.-WESTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE EQUIPMENT FOR 



ENGINE. TENDER, AND PASSENGER CAR. 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 195 

Q. How often should the High-Speed Reducing 
Valve be cleaned t 

A. Once a year when used on cars, and once in six 
months when used on engines and tenders. 

Q. What kind of oil should be used for lubri- 
cating purposes ? 

A. A high grade mineral oil. 

Q. How can a High-Speed Reducing Valve be 
taken apart so that it can be put together without 
changing the adjustment of the regulating spring ? 

A. Do not remove the cap nut. The lower case can 
be removed and replaced without disturbing this part of 
the mechanism. 

Q. If the braking power on a car is desigfied for 
go per cent, of its light weight when using a train- 
line pressure of 70 pounds, ivhat braking power will 
be developed with an emergency application of the 
High-Speed Brake at the moment of maximum 
cylinder pressure f 

A. Approximately 130 per cent. 

The cut (Fig. 60) gives an idea of the advancement 
in air-brake appliances. The three figures (page 193) 
represent, by scale, stops made by the same train going 
at the same rate of speed, but equipped as indicated. 

It takes about twice as far to stop a train going at 
forty, three times going at fifty, and about five times 
going at sixty miles an hour, as it does if the speed of 
the train is thirty miles an hour with the Quick-Action 
Brake. 



ig6 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Comparative Stops Made With High-Speed and Quick- 
Action Brakes. 



Speed. 


Stop in Feet. 


Quick Action 

Per Cent. I^ess 

Efficient. 


Feet in Favor 

of High-Speed 

Brake. 


High-Speed. 


Quick Action. 


45 


560 


7IO 


26.8 


I50 


5o 


70S 


880 


24. 8 


175 


60 


1060 


1360 


28.0 


300 


70 


1560 


2020 


29-5 


460 


80 


2240 


2780 


24.1 


540 



Train-line pressure used with High-Speed Brake, no pounds. 
Train-line pressure used with Quick-x\ction Brake, 70 pounds. 



The above table refers to stops made with chilled 
cast-iron wheels and soft cast-iron shoes with a train 
which was supposed to represent average conditions of 
service. 



HIGH-PRESSURE CONTROL OR 
SCHEDULE U. 

Q: What does Plate X represent? 

A. The High-Pressure Control or Schedule U Equip- 
ment sometimes used on freight engines. 

Q. How does it differ from the high-speed engine 
equipment? 

A. In the engine equipment for the high-speed brake, 
the governor pipe containing the one-quarter inch cut- 
out cock connects with the pipe running to the other 
governor, and reducing valves are used instead of safety 
valves. 

Q. What is the object of this special equipment ? 

A. It is designed for special use on roads having 
heavy grades and handling loads, such as ore, down the 
grade, and empty cars up. 

Q. What special advantage is gained f 
A. By using two sets of pump and train-line gov- 
ernors, 70 or 90 pounds can be used on the train line, 
and 90 or no pounds can be used on the main reservoir. 

Q. Would there not be danger of sliding ivheels 
if go pounds were used as train-line pressure ? 

A. If used on empty cars, yes ; but if used on heavily 
loaded cars there would be no danger, as the braking- 
power is usually 70 per cent, of the light weight of the 
car, and when a car is loaded to its full capacity, the 
percentage of braking power, as compared with the 
combined weight of the car and its contents, is much 
smaller than this, even when using a train-line pressure 
of 90 pounds. 



198 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Hoiu much more powerful would a brake be 
when using a train-tine pressure of go pounds as 
compared with 70 ? 

A. Approximately 25 per cent. 

Q. With the cocks as shown in Plate X, which 
governors are operative f 

A. The 90-pound pump governor and the 70-pound 
feed valve or train-line governor. 

Q. What is the object of running a governor pipe 
to the feed valve bracket chamber instead of in the 
manner adopted with the High-Speed Brake ? 

A. The feed-valve bracket chamber, into which pipe 
A connects, has main reservoir pressure in it, as is 
shown. The 90-pound governor being cut in, the pump 
will be stopped as soon as the main reservoir pressure 
reaches 90 pounds. If the brakes are applied and the 
brake valve is placed on lap position, no more air can 
pass to the feed-valve bracket, and thence to the governor 
to keep the steam valve shut and the pump stopped, and 
the pump will continue to work until main reservoir 
pressure reaches no pounds, at which time the other 
governor, always connected with main reservoir pressure, 
as shown, stops the pump. 

Q. What benefit is derived from this device 
when the 70-pound tram-line and go-pound pump 
governors are cut in? 

A. With the brake valve in running position, the 
pump does not have to work against a higher pressure 
than 90 pounds, but just as soon as the brakes are 
applied the pump raises the pressure in the main reser- 
voir to no pounds, which pressure is very helpful to 
insure a quick release 011 a long train and quickly 
recharge the auxiliaries. 

Q. What zvould be done in case the cars were 



High-Pressure Control or Schedule U. 199 

all heavily loaded and it was desired to use a 
train-line pressure of go pounds and a 7nain 
reservoir pressure of 1 10 pounds? 

A. The reversing cock handle would be moved so as 
to cut out the 70-pound train-line governor and cut in 
the 90-pound train-line governor. 

Q. Would it be safe to use the 90-pound train- 




Fig. 61.— Safety Valve. 



line pressure when there were air brakes on both 
light and loaded ears in operation in the same 
train f 

A. No ; in all probability the wheels on the light 
cars would be slid, if a heavy train pipe reduction were 
made. 



2oo Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. When using a go-pound train-line pressure, 
is the same train-line reduction necessary to apply 
the brakes in full as is used with a 70-pound train- 
line pressure ? 

A. No ; a heavier reduction would be necessary. 

Q. How much of a train-line reauction would 
equalize the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures, 
using an initial pressure of go pounds f 

A. About 27 pounds, if the piston travel were 
approximately eight inches. 

Q. Why are safety valves placed upon the tender, 
driver, and truck brakes f 

A. So as to allow all pressure over 50 pounds to 
escape to the atmosphere. Experience shows that over- 
heating of tires is likely to ensue if a greater pressure 
than this" is used on the tender, driver or truck brakes. 

Q. What is best to use on the engine if the 
grade is very long and heavy? 

A. A w T ater brake. With this brake no heating of 
tires is produced, as the braking is done with the pistons 
in the main cylinders. 

Q. With a train-line pressure of go pounds, 
is any more braking power developed with a 5, 
10 or 15-pound service reduction than if 70 pounds 
was carried on the train-line? 

A. No ; no gain will be made unless train-line re- 
ductions are continued after the point has been reached 
at which the reservoir and brake cylinder pressures 
would eqiialize when using the 70-pound train-line 
pressure. 



PLATE X.-WEST1NGH0USE RE.ENFORCED BRAKE OR SCHEDULE U, FOR FREIGHT ENGINE AND TENDER. 




WESTINGHOUSE COMBINED AUTOMATIC 

AND STRAIGHT AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT 

FOR ENGINES AND TENDERS. 

Q. For zvhat purpose zvas this equipment de- 
signed ? 

A. For use on engines and tenders in yard and 
freight service. 

Q. Why is it necessary on yard engines ? 

A. Because a triple valve will not recharge the 
auxiliary reservoir between very frequent brake applica- 
tions ; as a result it is necessary for the engineer to make 
a great many stops with the reverse lever. Reversing 
an engine tends to draw cinders into the cylinders, where 
they cut the cylinders and packing. The brake on a 
switch engine should be such that it can be used as 
often as desirable and always have the maximum power 
available. Using the brake constantly also keeps the 
tires in much better condition. A quick release is pos- 
sible with the straight air and, if desired, the brake can 
be partially released. 

Q. Of zuhat use is it on road engines ? 

A. Aside from the advantages stated above, while 
switching, it provides a means of bunching slack, per- 
mits slow-tips to be made to pick up a flag, can be used, 
if desired, to help retard the speed of the train while 
recharging in descending grades ; also in slowing up at 
times when much braking power is not required, and 
where it is unnecessary to waste the air to apply the 
brakes on all the cars and thus put needless work upon 



202 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 203 

the pump ; and it can be nsecl to meet many similar 
conditions encountered in Toad service. 

Q. Does this brake operate entirely separate 
from the automatic, and is there 710 danger of ob- 
taining too much braking power if one is used 
without first releasing the other? 

A. Each is entirely independent of the other, and 
the safety valves placed in the pipes leading to the 
driver and tender brake cylinders will permit only the 
predetermined amount of pressure considered suitable 
for maximum braking power. 

Q. What are the parts necessary to add to the 
standard engine and tender equipment t 

A. As illustrated in Fig. 62, it is necessary to apply 
on the engine a Slide-Valve Reducing- Valve, a ^ n 
Straight- Air Brake Valve, a Safety Valve set at 53 
pounds, and a double check valve. On the tender the 
additional parts consist of a double check valve, a 
safety valve set at 53 pounds, and one 36-inch hose, 
with union, angle fittings and nipples. 

O. What is the object of the Slide-Valve Re- 
ducing Valve ? 

A. To reduce main reservoir pressure to 45 pounds, 
that being considered proper with the straight air brake, 

Q. What positions has the Straight- Air Valve ? 

A. Release, application and lap positions. In release 
position cylinder pressure is exhausted direct to the 
atmosphere; in application position main reservoir pres- 
sure, reduced to 45 pounds, passes through the brake 
valve to the double check valves and thence to the 
cylinders. 

O. Explain the mechanism of the double check 
valve {Fig. 63). 



204 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



A. It consists of a double piston with a leather face 
on each. When air comes from the triple valve it 
forces the pistons to snch a position that no air can 
enter through the straight air pipe ; a set of ports is also 
opened to permit the air coming from the triple valve 



TO BRAKE CYLINDER 

m 




TO BRAKE CYLINDER 
OR FOR SAFETY VALVE 



Fig. 63. — Doup.lk Check Valve, 



to flow to the brake cylinder. When the straight air is 
used the opposite effects are produced ; that is, the 
pistons blank the port connection to the triple valve 
and open a port connection from the straight air pipe to 
the cvlinder. 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 205 

Q. What is the object of the safety valve ( Fig. 
62) f 

A, If the reducing valve did not reduce the pressure 
properly, owing to its being in poor condition, or if the 
automatic brake were used without first releasing the 
straight-air brake, the safety valve would allow any 
pressure in excess of 53 pounds to escape. 

Q. If the straight-air brake is left partially ap- 
plied and the automatic is then applied, what zuill 
he the result t 

A. Nothing unusual will be noticed until the engi- 
neer tries to release the automatic, at which time, as 
soon as the pressure in the pipe between the triple and 
double check valve is less than that between the straight- 
air valve and double check valve, the pistons in the 
double check valve will move over so as to stop the 
escape of air through the triple and establish a connec- 
tion between the straight-air valve and cylinder. 

Q. Hoza then may the brakes be released f 
A. By placing the straight-air valve in release posi- 
tion, where it should always be when the automatic 
brake is in use. 

Q. Where should the handle of the Engineer* $ 
Brake Valve be placed when the straight-air is in 
use ? 

A. In Running Position. 



**3 



Q. If the automatic brake is partially applied 
mid the straight-air is then used, what zuill be the 
result ? 

A. As just described, with the opposite conditions, 
the brake could not be released on the engine and tender 
without putting the Engineer's Brake Valve of the 
automatic system in Running or Release Position. 



206 Air-Brake Catechism. 

The following directions, if properly followed, will 
produce best results : 

1. Always keep both brakes cut in and ready for 
operation, unless failure of some part requires cutting- 
out. 

2. Always carry an excess pressure in the main reser- 
voir, as this is necessary to insure a uniformly satisfac- 
tory operation. 

3. When using automatic keep straight-air brake 
valve in release position, and •when using straight-air 
keep the automatic valve in running position ; this to 
avoid sticking of the driver and tender brakes. 

4. Automatic must not be used while straight-air is 
applied; if desirous of using the automatic, first release 
the straight-air. 

5. Though the use of straight-air while automatic is 
applied will not increase the driver and tender brake 
cylinder pressure above 45 pounds, yet release of either 
cannot be assured while the other brake valve is on lap 
or application position. 

6. Bear in mind that the straight-air on the driver 
and tender brakes is almost as powerful as the automatic 
brakes on same, and that each should be used with care 
to avoid rough handling of the train, or in holding down 
long grades, loosening of tires on drivers. 

7. The straight-air reducing valve should be kept 
adjusted to 45 pounds and the driver and tender safety 
valves at 53 pounds. Where a full application of the 
straight-air causes either or both safety valves to operate, 
it indicates too high adjustment of reducing valve or too 
low adjustment of safety valves. Have them tested and 
adjusted. 

STRAIGHT-AIR BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. What is the valve shown in Figs. 64, 65, 66, 
67 and 68, and with what is it used? 

A. It is known as the Straight-Air Brake Valve ; it 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 207 

is the valve used in connection with the Combined 
Automatic and Straight-Air Brake. 

Q. What do the different views represent? 

A. Fig. 66, a side view of the outside of the valve ; 
the view (Fig. 68) is a horizontal cross-section through 
FF(J?\<g. 66); Fig. 67 is a vertical cross-section; Fig. 
64, an end section showing the valve that controls the 
flow of pressure coming from the main reservoir ; and 
Fig. 65 is an end section through a plane which permits 
the valve controlling the exhaust to be seen. 

Q. Name the different parts of the valve. 

A. 1 is the valve body ; 2, the valve shaft ; 3, one 
of the two tappet pieces held to the shaft by rivets ; 
4, the handle ; 5, the quadrant ; 6, the shaft washer, 
which is of leather ; 7, the shaft spring, which holds the 
collar of the shaft against the leather washer, thus 
making an air-tight joint ; 8, the valve which controls 
main reservoir pressure ; 9, the one controlling the 
escape of air to the atmosphere from the brake cylinder ; 
10 and 11, the check valve springs; 12 and 13, the 
valve caps; 14, the shaft cap nut; 15, the handle 
screw; 16, the handle latch; and 17, the latch spring. 

Q. The valves 8 and 9 control the flow of air 
through the brake valve ; how are these valves con- 
trolled f 

A. By the handle 4 acting through the shaft 2. As 
the handle is moved the shaft starts to rotate, thus 
causing one of the tappet pieces 3 (Figs. 64 and 65) to 
engage the stem of either valve 8 or 9, according to the 
direction in which handle 4 is moved. If moved to the 
right (Fig. 65) valve 8 is unseated ; if moved to the left 
valve 9 (Fig. 65) is unseated. The shaft, as shown in 
Figs. 64, 65 and 67, is cut away in two places , at the 
bottom of each of the slots a tappet piece is fastened 
with two rivets. 



208 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q. What is the object of the tappet piece t 
A. The shaft could be designed to come in contact 
with the valve stems, but the steel tappet pieces present 




•ffolfafei* iisha'ust - ^^£J To Double' 

Y x2 Check Vaivs 

Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 

Straight-Air Brake Valve. 

a better wearing surface, as do also the steel pins in- 
serted at the top of the stems of valves 8 and 9 (Fig. 67). 

Q. Where is the Straight-Air Brake Valve 

usually located ? 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 209 



A. On the side of the cab within convenient reach 
of the engineer. 

Q. In what three positions may the handle of 
the valve be placed? 

A. Release, application and lap. 




»M^U TX3F» ", 



I** 



iF&G. 66. Fig. 67. 

Straight-Air Brake Valve. 

Q. Ejcphdn these positions. 

A. As shown in Fig. 65 it is on lap ; moved to the 
right it is in application or service position ; and to the 
left it is in release position. 



210 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Can the brakes be applied gradually and 
released gradually with this brake valve ? 

A. Yes ; a quick release or application is obtained 
when the valve handle is moved to either of the extreme 
positions shown. To obtain a gradual effect the handle 
of the valve should be moved a distance not sufficient to 
obtain the full movement of the valves. This can be 
told by the feeling when applying the brake, and by the 
sound as well as the feeling when making a release. 

Q. What connections has the brake valve t 

A. It has three and, as indicated, they connect with 
the main reservoir at W ; the trainpipe, or the one 
leading to the double check valve, at X (Fig. 65) ; and 
to the exhaust at Y. 

Q Explain the passage of air through the brake 
valve when the handle is placed in application posi- 
tion. 

' A. When the valve handle is moved to the right the 
tappet piece in the shaft engages the stem of valve 8, 
forcing the valve from its seat against the pressure 
beneath it and the tension of spring 11. Air which 
comes from the main reservoir through the reducing 
valve (Fig. 62) enters the brake valve at W (Fig. 64) 
and passes up by the unseated valve 8 into chamber b } 
thence through port b 1 (Fig. 67) into chamber b 2 and out 
at X (Fig. 65) into the pipe which leads to the double 
check valves (Fig. 62), and through these valves to the 
brake cylinders. 

Q. When the valve handle is moved to lap, after 
sufficient braking power has been obtained, what 
closes valve 8 on its seat f 

A. In this position the stem of valve 8 is clear of the 
tappet piece attached to the shaft, and the spring n, 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 211 

together with the pressure in chamber a, forces the valve 
to its seat. 

Q. What part has valve 9 performed during the 
operations just described? 

A. Spring 10 (Fig. 65), together with the pressure 
in chamber b% forces valve 9 to its seat and it thus pre- 
vents the escape of air to the atmosphere. 

Q. Explain the passage of the air when the 
brake valve handle 4 is placed in release position. 

A. Valve 9 is forced from its seat and air from the 
brake cylinder comes back through the double check 
valves (Fig. 62), enters at X (Fig. 65) into chamber 
b% passes by the unseated valve 9 into chamber c, thence 
to the atmosphere at Y y and thus releases the air from 
the brake cylinders. 

Q. If the brake valve handle is left in applica- 
tion positio7i hoiu much pressure will be obtained in 
the brake cylinder? 

A. The reducing valve between the main reservoir 
and brake valve is adjusted to close when the pressure 
between the reducing valve and brake valve is 45 
pounds, hence this is the maximum pressure that can be 
obtained in the brake cylinders when using the straight- 
air brake. 

Q In what position should the brake valve handle 
be carried when the brake is not in use? 

A. Release position ; so placed any slight leakage of 
main reservoir pressure by the seat of valve 8 (Fig. 64) 
can not creep on the brakes, since the air would escape 
direct to the atmosphere by the unseated valve 9. 

Q. In piping this valve how may mistakes be 
avoided? 

A. By examining the raised letters cast 011 the out- 



212 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

side of the lugs into which the pipes are screwed. M. R. 
indicates main reservoir; EX., the exhaust, and T. P., 
the trainpipe connection, or the one through which air 
reaches the brake cylinders after passing through the 
double check valves. 

PECULIARITIES AND CARE OF THE STRAIGHT-AIR 
BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. What are the only parts in the Straight-Air 
Brake J r alve that get out of order? 

A. The rubber seats of valves 8 and 9, and the shaft 
washer, 6. 

Q. How may the check valves 8 and 9 be re- 
moved / 

A. By removing caps 12 and 13 the valves will fall 
out. 

Q. Are valves 8 and 9 interchangeable ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. What effect ivould be produced by a leak 
across the seat of valve 8? 

A. With the brake valve in release position a con- 
stant blow would exist at the exhaust. When the 
brake was applied this leak would continue to apply 
the brakes harder. 

Q. What ejject would be produced by a leak 
across the seat of valve 9 ? 

A. After the brake was applied and the brake valve 
handle placed on lap the leak would gradually release 
the brake. 

Q. What effect would be produced if gasket 6 
(Ftg. 6 f) formed a poor joint f 

A. The bad effect of this would only be noticed 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 213 

during such time as the brake was applied, when air in 
chamber b, connected through port b 1 and b 2 with the 
pipe leading to the double check valves and brake 
cylinders, would pass by gasket 6 and escape to the 
atmosphere, causing a blow at the exhaust and at the 
handle end of the shaft, tending to release the brake. 

Q. To remove the shaft 2 for the purpose of 
cleaning, or for renewing gasket 6, what should first 
be done t 

A. First remove valves 8 and 9 to avoid bending the 
stems of these valves which, as shown in Fig. 67, extend 
within the circumference of the shaft 2. Next, remove 
the handle 4 and cap 14, and the shaft can be lifted 
out. 

Q. In cleaning the valve what special care 
should be taken? 

A. Not to put any- oil on valves 8 and 9, or where it 
can work down upon the seats. 



DUPLEX MAIN RESERVOIR REGULATION 

AS USED WITH STANDARD WESTINGHOUSE EQUIPMENT 
ON ENGINES HAULING FREIGHT TRAINS. 

Q What is the special object to be obtained with 
the equipment shown in Figs. 69, jo and 71 ? 

A. To provide a means by which a high main reser- 
voir pressure can be obtained with which to release the 
brakes and recharge, without its being necessary for the 
pump to operate against this high pressure except during 
only such time as the brakes are applied. 

O. Of what does the duplex governor consist ? 
A. Of two pressure heads which operate in conjunc- 
tion with one steam portion of the governor. 

Q. At what pressures is it customary to adjust 

the pressure heads ? 

A. The low pressure head is adjusted to stop the 
pump when a main reservoir pressure of 85 pounds has 
been obtained, and the high pressure head is adjusted at 
no pounds. 

Q. If the brake valve handle is in full release or 
Twining position, how much pressure will there be 
in the main reservoir when the pump is stopped; if 
in any of the other positions what pressure results? 

A. 85 pounds main reservoir pressure is obtained 
when the brake valve is in release or running positions ; 
in the other positions no pounds is obtained. 

Q. What objection is there to the use of one 
pump governor adjusted to shut off steam from the 
pump when a 711am reservoir pressure of no pounds 
is obtained? 



Duplex Main Reservoir Regulation. 



21- 




216 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. A pump operating against a high pressure con- 
tinuously will wear faster and is much more likely to 
become overheated in freight service. 

Q. Explain why the pump is stopped when the 
main reservoir pressure is 85 pounds r if the brake 
valve handle is in release or running position. 

A. As indicated on Fig. 69, the pipe leading to the low 
pressure head is also connected at the brake valve to a 
hole drilled into the port, which, in running position,, 
conveys air to the feed valve. This port contains main 
reservoir pressure, with the brake valve in this position,, 
and as soon as main reservoir pressure reaches that for 
which the low pressure head is adjusted, usually 85 
pounds, the pump is stopped. 

Q. Why is a higher main reservoir pressure ob- 
tained with the brake valve in other than release 
and running positions ? 

A. When the brake valve handle is moved toward 
service position, the port supplying main reservoir pres- 
sure to the feed valve is closed, and the air which escapes 
at the governor vent port causes the pump to start. It 
will not cease operations unless the valve handle is 
again moved to running or release position, until suffi- 
cient pressure has been accumulated in the main reser- 
voir to operate the high pressure head, usually adjusted 
for no pounds. Air from the main reservoir enters the 
brake valve as indicated and. passes through pipe A to 
the high pressure governor head. 

Q. Are all brake valves drilled so that the pipe 
from the low pressure head can be connected into 
the port leading to the feed valve? 

A. All are that have been put in service recently. 
Figs. 70 and 71 indicate the proper location for this 
hole in case it is desirable to use the duplex governor in 
connection with the standard equipment. 



APPLIANCES AND METHODS OF TESTING 

TRIPLE VALVES IN ROAD SERVICE 

AFTER CLEANING, OR AFTER 

REPAIRING. 

The necessity for properly testing triple valves after 
they have been subjected to cleaning and oiling can not 
be emphasized too strongly. 

The Westinghouse Air Brake Company has designed 
proper paraphernalia, by means of which triple valves 
are subjected to tests which insure the proper action of 
valves when in service. 

The following is taken from the pamphlet issued by 
the Westinghouse Air Brake Company on the subject of 
Triple Valve Testing : 

After careful and thorough consideration, we have 
decided that, to produce satisfactory results, the triple 
valve should receive one of three distinct tests, accord- 
ing to whether it is in actual service, has* just been 
cleaned, or has just been repaired. 

It would be manifestly unreasonable to expect a triple 
valve that had been in service for a period of time to 
pass as rigid a test as one just repaired, and vice versa. 
It would also be manifestly improper to condemn a 
valve, in service, to the shop without first giving it a 
proper cleaning and re-test. It would be expensive, as 
well as unnecessary, to make this test as rigid as that to 
which newly repaired work is subjected ; hence, practical 
conditions can best be met by three tests, one of which 
we will designate as a u Yard Test ; " the second, a 
" Cleaners' Test ; " and the third, a " Shop " or " Repair 
Test." 

While plain triple valves cannot be tested on the 



218 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



apparatus shown, suitable pipe connections for testing 
same can readily be made ; these are not shown, since 
the particular arrangement most suitable can best be 



m n^-4^^Viqri m 




Fig. 72. — Controlling Valve. 




To T.r.ain Pipe 



22, 

A To Supply 
Pipe. 



Fig. 73.— Controlling Valve. 



determined when conditions under which the work is 
to be done are known. 

Each test requires special devices, and we have aimed 



Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 219 

to employ standard apparatus as far as possible in the 
designs. 

The special valve for use in connection with the 
different tests is shown in Figs. 72 and 73. It is so 
designed that, regardless of the length of the train, or 
amount of leakage, the rise of trainpipe pressure is 
always at a predetermined number of pounds per 
minute. This rise corresponds to the conditions exist- 
ing at the end of a long air train when a release is made, 
if the usual main reservoir pressure and a main reservoir 
of recommended capacity be employed. 

OPERATION OF DEVICE. 

As air from the yard plant or engine enters the valve 
at A (Fig. 73), it is free to pass through port B into 
chamber D. Trainpipe pressure can always be main- 
tained in chamber L under diaphragm 2 by means of ports 
77and M. Air in port B is free to pass through small pin 
holey, thence through port C, and out at E to the con- 
trolling reservoir. Owing to the unchanging volume of 
the controlling reservoir, a constant predetermined rise 
of pressure is obtained, and this pressure is always free 
to reach chamber G. When the pressure in this chamber 
is greater than that in chamber Z, connected with the 
trainpipe through ports M and H, diaphragm 2 is forced 
downward, thus unseating valve 1 and establishing a 
direct connection from the supply pipe to the trainpipe 
through A, B, D, H, and /. With a long train, valve 
1 is forced farther from its seat, thus permitting a faster 
feed, while with one car the valve is barely off its seat ; 
hence, regardless of the length of train, or the amount 
of leakage, this valve will cause a rise in trainpipe pres- 
sure of a predetermined number of pounds per minute, 
which feed is governed by the size of the controlling 
reservoir and of port/. 

yard TEST. 

The device illustrated in Figs. 74 and 75 is for use in 



220 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 




Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 221 



W 




u 



^J 




Fig. 75. -^Portable; Yard Testing Plant. 



222 Air-Brake Catechism. 

connection with a yard testing plant. It may also be 
used between the tender and iirst car of a train when an 
engine is to be used for testing same. The object of 
this apparatus is to condemn from road service to the 
cleaners any valve which will not release a brake when 
the rise in trainpipe pressure corresponds with that at 
the end of a long air train : controlling valve TV accom- 
plishes this result. 

If this device is always to be used in connection with 
an engine for testing trains, the brake valve and equaliz- 
ing reservoir are unnecessary. In the event of the brake 
valve not being used, the supply pipe should be joined 
to the test apparatus at point D. 

Test. — If to be used with a yard testing plant, connect 
hose as indicated and turn cocks A and B as shown. 
Cock C should always remain open when the yard test 
plant is being u ed. The air now feeds through the 
brake valve, and the usual tests to locate leakage, faulty 
piston travel, triple valve, etc., should be made. When 
this has been completed and the train is fully charged 
to 70 pounds, make a service reduction of 10 pounds; 
then turn cocks A and B to their closed position and 
release. Any triple valve which fails to release the 
brake when the trainpipe pressure has reached 70 pounds 
should be removed, sent to the cleaners, and be replaced 
by a triple that has been cleaned. 

If an engine is used to test brakes, the supply pipe of 
the testing device should be coupled to the trainpipe or 
the tender and the other hose to the car. In this case 
cock C should remain closed throughout the test and 
the brake valve handle be left in full release position ; 
otherwise the manipulation of the cocks is the same as 
just described in connection with a yard testing plant. 

To avoid the escape of air, when the brake valve 
handle is in full release position, the warning port in the 
rotary valve should be plugged. 

If always to be used between a tender and train and 



Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 223 

never with a yard testing plant, omit the brake valve 
and equalizing reservoir and pipe as already explained. 
The manipnlation of the cocks is the same as with the 
yard testing plant. The disposal of any triple valve 
failing to release when the trainpipe pressure has 
reached 70 pounds should be as already explained. 

In making the release test from an engine, the engi- 
neer should keep the trainpipe pressure as near 80 
pounds as possible by leaving the brake valve handle in 
full release position as much as is necessary to accom- 
plish this result. 

cleaners' test. 

The apparatus shown in Plate XI must be used only 
as a condemning test for valves that have been cleaned, 
and never as a shop test for repaired triple valves. 

This rack has been designed to test either the 
" Freight" triple valve (F-36), the " Passenger " (F-27), 
or the u Pullman" (F-29). It will be noted that pro- 
vision has also been made for testing hose, angle cocks, 
stop cocks, couplings, release valves and retaining 
valves. 

After cleaning the triple, examining springs to see 
that they have not received a permanent set, the gaskets 
to see that they are in good condition, and the different 
parts to see that they are in proper condition to be re- 
turned to service, the triple-piston packing ring, slide 
valve, and the bush in which the piston operates should 
be carefully lubricated with a few drops of high-grade 
mineral oil. 

It should then be placed on the rack and subjected to 
the following tests : 

No. 1, Feed-groove test. 

No. 2, Release test. 

No. 3, For tightness of slide valve, emergency and 
check valves, and for any leakage by gaskets. 

Test No. 1. — Many valves will apply brakes properly 



224 Air-Brake Catechism. 

when given sufficient time to charge the auxiliary reser- 
voir ; but in hill service, where the reservoirs must be 
recharged quickly and uniformly between brake appli- 
cations, the auxiliary is not properly recharged during 
the limited available time. This trouble is usually due 
to a partially closed feed groove in the triple, and to 
guard against the possibility of such an occurrence, this 
port in each triple should be tested on the rack after 
cleaning, or on the shop rack after receiving repairs. 

Unless specially directed otherwise, permit cock H to 
remain open ; this is done to maintain equal pressure 
above and below the rubber diaphragm in controlling 
valve N. With unequal pressures it might be ruptured. 

With all cocks except H closed, open cock B, and 
with a trainpipe pressure of 80 pounds the triple valve 
should charge reservoir M from o to 70 pounds, as 
follows : 

An F-36, G-24 or B-25 triple in from 60 to 85 seconds. 
An F-27 or F-24 " " 28 to 45 " 

An F-25, F-29 or F-46 u " 16 to 25 " 

Test No. 2. — With all cocks open except A, E y and 
F, charge reservoir M to 70 pounds ; then close cock B, 
and by means of cock A reduce the trainpipe pressure 
to 60 pounds, at which time cock A should be gradu- 
ally closed ; next close cock H and open cock E, and 
the triple valve should release the air from brake cylin- 
der O by the time the trainpipe pressure has reached 70 
pounds ; failing to do this, the valve should be sent to 
the shop for a new triple-piston packing ring, and any 
other needed repairs. 

Test No. j. — With cocks A, C, and E closed, the 
triple can be operated by alternately opening and closing 
cocks B and F. The exhaust port of the triple should 
be coated with soapsuds to determine if any leakage 
exists when the slide valve is in its different positions. 
If satisfactory up to this point, close cock B y open cock 



PLATE XL— CLEANER'S TEST PLANT. 




Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 225 

F, and remove the union at the triple ; coat the opening 
with soapsuds to determine if there is any back leakage 
by the check valve or gaskets. 

If the valve passes these three tests satisfactorily, it is 
all right to put back in service ; failing, it should re- 
ceive the necessary repairs. 

SHOP REPAIRS AND TEST. 

After receiving the necessary shop repairs, the triple 
valve should undergo a thorough test upon the rack 
shown in Plate XII. This rack is the same as shown in 
Plate XI, with the addition of the weighted valve K, 
cocks G and Z, and screw /. On it may be tested the 
"Freight," " Passenger" or " Pullman" triple valves. 

The purpose of the weighted valve is to maintain a 
certain difference in pressure between that in the train- 
pipe and in the auxiliary reservoir. If the triple valve 
is sufficiently sensitive, its piston and slide valve will be 
forced to release position without the weighted valve 
being lifted, when the pressure in the trainpipe is 
slowly increased. 

The weight to be used with each valve should never 
be other than as indicated on the weights themselves. 

A triple valve leaving the shop should receive the 
following tests aside from the general examination to 
condemn the graduating spring, emergency-valve rubber 
seat, check- valve spring, gaskets, strainer, etc.: 

Test No. 1, Examination of fit of packing ring. 

Test No. 2, For packing-ring leakage. 

Test No. 3, Feed-groove test. 

Test No. 4, For release. 

Test No. 5, For tightness of slide, emergency and 
check valves, and general freedom from leaks of cast- 
ings or gaskets. 

Test No. /.—The triple-piston packing ring must be 
examined and known to be fitted so that the ends come 
neatly together when in the cylinder, and at the same 



226 Air-Brake Catechism. 

time be perfectly free when revolved in its groove. 
Entire freedom from dirt, and the lubrication of only 
the triple-piston packing ring, the bush in which it 
works, and the slide valve, with a small amount of high- 
grade oil, are important. 

Test No. 2. — With all cocks closed excepting F and 
H ) turn screw I to its extreme inward position ; then 
close cock F and open cock B very slowly to avoid 
forcing the triple piston back with sufficient force to 
bend its stem when it strikes screw /, which screw is 
supposed to hold the triple piston midway between the 
service and graduating positions. The maintenance of 
80 pounds pressure in the trainpipe should not result in 
leakage by the piston sufficient to give more than 15 
pounds pressure in reservoir M in one minute. When 
this test is completed, close cock B } open cock F y bleed 
the air from reservoir M y and turn screw / to its outer 
position. 

Test No. 3. — With the triple piston in release position, 
no air in the auxiliary reservoir, and 80 pounds in the 
trainpipe, the auxiliary should charge from o to 70 
pounds, using an F-36 triple, in from 60 to 85 seconds ; 
an F-27, in from 28 to 45 seconds, and an F-29, in from 
16 to 25 seconds. 

To make test, close all cocks excepting F and H ; 
opening cock F will exhaust all air from the trainpipe 
side of the triple piston ; then close cock F, open cock 
B, and note the number of seconds necessary to charge 
reservoir M to 70 pounds. When fully charged, coat 
the exhaust port with soapsuds to be sure that no leak- 
age exists when the slide valve is in release position. 

Test No. 4. — With all cocks open excepting F, A and 
F (Plate XII), permit reservoir M to be charged to a 
pressure of 70 pounds ; next close cock B } and, by means 
of cock A y slowly reduce the pressure, as shown by the 
trainpipe gauge hand, until it registers 60 pounds, at 



PLATE XII.— SHOP REPAIR TEST PLANT. 




Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 227 

which time cock A should be gradually closed ; coat the 
exhaust port with soapsuds to be sure the slide valve is 
tight in service position ; now close cock H, and open 
cock E; under the conditions now existing the triple 
valve should release the air from brake cylinder O with- 
out valve K being lifted from its seat ; if this valve 
should be forced from its seat, the movement denotes 
that the triple valve is not sufficiently sensitive, and the 
defect should be remedied. The rise in trainpipe pres- 
sure is retarded by controlling valve N, and any valve 
passing this test will be sure to release properly if placed 
at the end of a long air train. 

Test No. 5. — The tightness of the slide valve in emer- 
gency position and the general freedom of the triple 
from leaks through castings or gaskets should be de- 
termined by painting the exhaust port and the triple 
with soapsuds when all cocks except F are closed. 
Passing these tests, the union should be uncoupled and 
the trainpipe connection of the triple covered with soap- 
suds to detect any back leakage by the emergency check 
valve or gaskets. 



LUBRICANTS. 

Q. What lubricants should be used in the differ- 
ent brake apparatus ? 

A. Steam Cylinder of Pump — Valve Oil. 
Air Cylinder of Pump — Valve Oil. 
Brake Valve — High-grade Machine Oil. 
Triple Valve and High-speed Reducing Valve — 

High-grade Mineral Oil. 
Brake Cylinder — A light grease that will not 
flow in Summer or become thick in Winter. 



AIR-BRAKE RECORDING GAGES. 

Q. What is an air-brake recording gage ? 

A. It is a mechanism by means of which lines are 
traced upon a chart. An examination of these lines 
will tell exactly how the brakes have been manipulated 
by the engineer. 

Q. What causes the lines to be traced upon the 
chart f 

A. The contrivance has an arm containing a pen 
which is raised or lowered as the pressure fluctuates in 
the place to which the gage is piped. As the pen and 
chart move, a line is traced showing the variation of the 
pressure. 

Q. What causes the chart to move ? 

A. It is connected with a clock movement, by the 
adjustment of which the movement of the chart is 
controlled. 

Q. To what else is the recording gage similar ? 

A. To a steam indicator ; but in that case steam 
instead of air causes the pen to rise or lower as the 
pressure changes, and the movement of the main steam 
piston imparts a movement to the indicator drum upon 
which paper is fastened, and upon which a line is traced 
by a pen or pencil. 

Q. To what part of the air-brake system is the 
recording gage piped? 

A. It may be piped to the train line, the auxiliary 
reservoir, or the brake cylinder. On a passenger train 



230 Air-Brake Catechism. 

the gage is usually placed at the rear of the train, while 
on a freight train it is placed in the caboose. 

Q. Which of these places is preferred f 
A. The train line. So connected, the chart shows 
the fluctuation of pressure when the brakes are applied 
and released, and the exact habits of the engineer are 
shown. 

Q. How many forms of recording gages are there f 

A. Two ; a revolving gage, the chart of which is 
shown in Fig. 82, and a horizontal gage, a chart from 
which is shown in Fig. 83. 

From the record ?nade by a recording gage } 
what may be ascertained ? 

A. The amount of train line pressure carried ; the cor- 
rectness of the air gage ; the method employed by the 
engineer in the application and release of the brakes ; 
the position of the brake valve handle in releasing brakes 
and recharging the train ; it is a valuable adjunct in 
finding the cause of air brake wrecks or " failures"; 
shows if the air brake instruction of the road is lived 
up to ; shows how long it takes to recharge with the 
different main reservoirs and pumps on the different 
engines ; it is a valuable aid in discovering the cause of 
slid flat wheels ; it increases the interest of the engineers 
in air brake matters, as their record and skill are 
shown by the lines on the chart ; besides these things, 
a great deal of kindred information may be gleaned by 
a careful study of the charts. 

Q. At what speed do these charts usually move ? 

A. From two and one-quarter to four and one-half 
inches an hour, as desired. Horizontal charts have been 
used at as high a speed as three feet an hour. The speed 
can be adjusted by means of the clock. 



Air-Brake Recording Gages. 



231 




232 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



sasnod Nl 3anSS3bd 




Q. Is there any advantage gained 
from a slow or fast movement of the 
lv ^ "" paper? 

A. A slow movement condenses the 
record and does not require so large a 
chart, while a fast movement uses a 
longer chart, but shows a greater corre- 
sponding amount of detail. If a slow 
movement is used, and the detail is 
desired at any. particular point, such 
as a water crane or milk depot, the 
speed of the paper may be adjusted as 
desired. 

In Fig. 82, the broken line shows 
the path the pen would trace if there 
was a constant pressure of 70 pounds. 
No pressure is represented by the cir- 
cumference of the small circle. 

The figures at the top are a time 
reference, and the figures up and down 
refer to the amount of pressure. 

The distance between the lines run- 
ning up and down represent the dis- 
tance traveled by the train. The chart 
(Fig. 82) shows two records on the 
same run made by two different men. 
A study of the two shows several 
points of interest. 

The best work shows on the card 
to the right ; the card at the left shows 
that th^ train line governor was not 
adjusted properly for a 70 pound train 
line pressure, or else the gage was 
wrong ; the card at the right shows three station stops 
where the engineer made more than a 20 pound train 
line reduction, while the card at the left shows the same 
thing at six stations, and at almost every station the 



o 
< 
O 

o 

M 

Q 

O 
u 
w 

P4 

< 
o 

N 
i-t 

O 

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CO 

00 

6 

■Ua 



Air-Brake Recording Gages. 233 

stop was made by two applications of the brake. The 
amount of reduction points very strongly to the use of 
the emergency. 

Fig. 83 shows a record taken from a horizontal record- 
ing gage. 

The horizontal lines represent pressure as indicated, 
and the length of the paper shows the distance. 

The card shows that a train line pressure of 72 pounds 
was used, and that the engineer was in the habit of mak- 
ing too heavy train line reductions. 

In one place the train line pressure was reduced to 18 
pounds, another to 15, another to 8 pounds, and in one 
case all air was taken from the train line. The two 
cases of heavy reduction at the left of the record point 
strongly to the use of the emergency position of the 
brake valve. 

In two places at the right the card shows that in two 
places the engineer released to recharge, but evidently 
did not calculate properly, as both times he started to 
apply the brakes when the train line was only charged 
to 60 pounds. The pressure in the auxiliaries was 
undoubtedly even somewhat less than this. 



TRAIN INSPECTION. 

Q. Why is train inspection necessary ? 

A. To find and remedy, before trying to handle the 
train on a grade, any defects that would render its 
handling unsafe ; part of the pistons may be out against 
the cylinder heads when the brakes are applied, the re- 
taining valves may be poor, some brakes may not ap- 
ply, auxiliaries may not charge, leaks may exist, the 
brakes may go into emergency when trying to make a 
service application, and many other defects may exist. 

Q. Where should we begin to get a train ready ? 
A. At the rear. 

Q. Is it wrong to start at the head end? 

A. It would not be were the cocks not opened be- 
tween the tender and cars. If the cocks were opened, 
the air would blow through and out of a chance open 
cock, and a loss of time and air would result. 

Q. Commencing at the rear, what should be 
done first ? 

A. The rear angle cock must be closed and the hose 
hung up. 

Q. What harm is there in allowing the hose to 
drag? 

A. It collects dirt and cinders, which are blown into 
the train and help to close strainers, and which work 
into the triples and cause them to wear faster. In 
winter, ice getting into the hose may block it. 



Train Inspection. 235 

Q. What should we do as we go towards the 
engine ? 

A. See that the retainer handles are turned down, 
hand brakes released, hose coupled, and cocks turned so 
that the cars are cut in. 

Q. How does the cock in the cross-over, pipe, 
connecting the train line to the triple, usually stand 
when the car is cut in ? 

A. At right angles to the pipe. See Plate I. 

Q. How shoztld the angle cocks stand at the end 
of the car when wit in ? 
A. Parallel with the pipe. 

Q. Do the angle cocks and cut-out cocks always 
stand as just described ? 

A. No ; sometimes in just the reverse positions. 

Q. Why is this ? 

A. These are cocks used with very old equipment 
and may be readily recognized, as they differ in shape 
from those now employed. If in doubt, look at the 
crease in the top of the plug, which always stands 
parallel to the opening in the valve. 

Q. What should we always do before coupling 
the hose between the engine and cars ? 

A. Blow out the train line on the engine to get rid 
of dirt and water. 

Q After coupling the hose and turning the 
angle cocks, are we ready to look over the brakes ? 
A. No, not until the pump has charged the train. 

Q. With a constant pressure of seventy pounds 
on the train line, how long should it take to charge 
one auxiliary from zero to seventy pounds with 
the modern equipment ? 



236 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A, About seventy seconds. 

Q. How long does it take to charge a train of 
twenty cars ? 

A. This depends on the condition of the pump and 
the leaks in the train. If the capacity of the pump 
were sufficient to keep a constant train-line pressure of 
seventy pounds, twenty cars could be charged as quickly 
as one. This cannot be done, as twenty feed grooves 
take air from the train line faster than the pump will 
supply it. 

Q. Who should tell when it is time for the 
test? 

A. The engineer. He should wait until full press- 
ure is obtained and then make a twenty-pound service 
reduction. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. One brakeman should go over the train turning 
up the retainer handles, while the other examines piston 
travel and looks for leaks. 

Q. What should the piston travel be ? 

A. If no rule exists on your road in regard to this, a 
piston travel between 5 and 8 inches will be found to 
give good satisfaction on ordinary grades. 

Q. What should be done after the retainer 
handles are raised and the piston travel adjusted ? 

A. The engineer should be signaled to release, and 
then there should be a wait of fifteen or twenty seconds, 
to allow the brake-cylinder pressure to reduce to what 
the retainer holds. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. The man on deck should turn down the retainer 
handles. If a blow issues from the retainer when the 
handle is turned down, the retainer is working properly. 



Train Inspection. 237 

A strict count of those working should be kept. The 
man on the ground should walk along and see that the 
brakes release when the retainer handles are turned 
down. 

Q. What should be done after the inspection is 
completed? 

A. A report should be made to the engineer and 
conductor, giving them a knowledge of the piston 
travel, the number of retainers in working order, the 
number of cars, the number of air cars in working 
order, and any general information concerning the con- 
dition of the train. 

Q. In testing, would it do for a brakeman to 
open the angle cock at the rear of the train to set 
the brakes ? 

A. This is decidedly a poor practice ; brakes that 
cannot be worked from an engine will sometimes work 
by opening an angle cock. If a hose lining were loose, 
a brakeman might apply the brakes and an engineer re- 
lease them all right, while, in making the reduction 
from the engine, the train-line reduction going ahead 
might roll up the lining and close the hose. We want 
to know just how the brakes will work from the engine. 

Q. If there is a leak in the hose couplings,, what 
should be done ? 

A. Turn angle cocks, break the coupling, and, if 
the seat is bad and thare is no extra hose gasket, make 
the seats round, if they are not so, and recouple. If 
the leak still exists, break the coupling, put a small 
stick back of each lug, and close the couplings on them. 

Q. Why should paper never be used to make a 
joint ? 

A. It works into strainers, often causing an auxil- 



238 Air-Brake Catechism. 

iary to charge slowly, and it may prohibit getting quick 
action on this car. 

Q. When inspecting a train, if we find a brake 
that does not apply with the rest y what should be 
done ? 

A. See that the car is cut in properly, and try the 
bleed cock to see that there is air in the auxiliary. If 
the auxiliary is charged, signal the engineer for a train- 
line reduction. 

Q. If the brake applies and then leaks off grad- 
ually, without any air coming out of the triple ex- 
haitst, what is probably the trouble? 

A. The air is blowing by the packing leather in the 
brake cylinder. 

Q. How can a brake that does not apply when 
the reduction is made be sometimes made to work ? 

A. By cutting it off from the car ahead and the one 
behind it and opening the angle cock. The cylinder 
may be dirty, and setting the brake in the emergency 
may loosen the dirt and cause it to work properly. 

Q. If the auxiliary were found to contain no air 
when the bleed cock was opened, what might be the 
trouble ? 

A. The feed grooves might be corroded shut in the 
triple ; the strainer where the cross-over pipe joins the 
main train line, or the one where the cross-over pipe 
joins the triple, may be filled with dirt and scale. 

Q. Is it good practice to pour oil into a hose to 
make a brake work ? 

A. Decidedly not ; it may occasionally furnish tem- 
porary relief, but it will decay the rubber- seated valve 
and dampen the strainers, pipe, and triples so that dirt 
will adhere to them and render them sticky. 



Train Inspection. 239 

Q. Is a small leak, one that the pump will 
easily overcome, more easily managed in a long or a 
short train f 

A. In a long train. 

Q. Why? 

A. Because there is a much larger volume of air in a 
long train line, and the reduction causing the brakes to 
leak on harder after being applied will be much slower 
on a long than on a short train. Frequently a leak that 
could not be gotten along with in a train of three or 
four cars, if cut in with twenty tight cars, would not be 
noticed. 

Q. If a retainer were broken off and the pipe 
plugged, what would result ? 

A. After the engineer applied the brake, he could 
not release it, as the exhaust port would have been 
closed. 

Q. Would it interfere with applying the brake ? 

A. No. 

Q. If a brake sticks, what should be done ? 

A. Look to see that no retainer handle is up, that the 
hand brake is not set, and that no lever is caught. Then 
signal the engineer again to release. If he is unable to 
release it, cut the car out and bleed it. 

Q. Should a car be bled when cut out ? 

A. Always ; a leakage of train-line pressure between 
the cut-out cock and the triple might cause the brake 
to apply after it was cut out, if any air were left in the 
auxiliary. 

Q. If the piston stays out on a car after we 
hear the air escape from the triple exhaust port, 
what is wrong ? 



24-0 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. The release spring is weak probably . 

Q. Is it necessary to cut such a brake out ? 

A. No ; the jar of the wheels against the shoes will 
force the piston in. 

Q. If two hose couplings are frozen together x how 
should they be separated ? 

A. The ice should be thawed, or the gaskets will be 
torn. 

Q. If a triple fails to work because it is frozen y 
what should be done ? 

A. It should be thawed and the drain plug removed 
in the bottom of the triple, to remove the water and avoid 
a repetition of the trouble. 

Q. What three things would cause the brakes 
to go into emergency when making a gradual train- 
line reduction ? 

A. A weak graduating spring, a broken graduating 
pin, and, by far the most likely, a sticky triple. 

Q m How would we find the triple causing the 
trouble? 

A. On a train of five or six cars we can watch to see 
which brake grabs first and cut the car out. On a train 
of over seven cars, the brakes do not usually apply with 
the first reduction on the car causing the trouble, so, to 
find the faulty triple, have the engineer make a five-pound 
train-line reduction, find the car with the brake not set 
and cut it out. Then try again with all cut in to be 
sure that the faulty triple has been found. 

Q. How would we find the faulty triple if the 
brakes went into quick action with the first reduc- 
tion on a long train ? 

A. Turn an angle cock in the middle of the train and 
see which half contains the trouble ; continue in this 



Train Inspection. , 241 

manner until the trouble is located in a five car lot ; 
have the brakes applied and watch these five to see 
which brake goes into quick action first, and cut out the 

defective triple. 

* 

Q. If the emergency has been used, or we find a 
car cut out, and, when we cut it in, a strong heavy 
blow issues from the triple exhaitst and at the same 
time the brake sets on the car and cannot be released, 
what is the trouble f 

A. The emergency piston is stuck down, holding 
the emergency valve from its seat. 

Q. How can we close it? 

A. Tap the triple lightly. If this does not work, 
turn the cut-out cock in cross-over pipe until the blow 
stops and then cut it in suddenly ; the sudden flow of 
air up under the emergency piston may raise it. 

Q. In trying the brakes on a passenger train, 
how should the signal be given ? 

A. From the head car to apply them and from the 
rear car to release them, to be sure that the whistle-line 
cocks stand right through the train. On an excursion 
train the signal should be tested from every car in the 
train. 

Q. Explain a means by which poor brakes can 
be detected, 

A. By feeling of the wheels at the foot of a grade. 

Q. What will characterize the wheels on the 
cars having the poor brakes t 

A. They will be cold, or cooler at least, than the 
others. 

Q. What is this test called? 
A. The thermal test. 



242 Air-Brake Catechism. 

0. Would we expect to find the same degree of 
heat in all the wheels ? 

A. No, the heavier cars will have the greater braking 
power as compared with the light weights^ and these 
cars would naturally have warmer wheels. This test, 
nevertheless, is a very valuable aid in detecting poor 
brakes. 

O. How icon Id you account for it if a test was 
made at the top of a grade and all the brakes applied, 
but some of the wheels were found to be cold when 
jnaking the thermal test at the foot of the grade? 

A. One of four chief causes is generally responsible 
for this condition — low braking power, poor packing- 
leathers, poor retainers, or triple feed grooves in a dirty 
condition. 

Q. JFhat could dirty feed grooves have to do 
with the cool wheels if the reservoirs charged all 
right and the brakes applied properly at the top oj 
the grade f 

A. In the usual yard test air enough will leak by the 
triple-piston packing ring and charge the reservoir so 
that the brakes will apply properly even if the feed 
groove is dirty. In descending a heavy grade there are 
but a few seconds in which to recharge between brake 
applications ; as a result the reservoirs on the cars are 
never recharged after the first application that is made 
on the grade, and the brakes on these cars are, as de- 
veloped by the thermal test, practically useless, although 
they did pass the first test. 



TRAIN HANDLING. 

Q. What should we always do before coupling 
to a train ? 

A. Start the pump and be sure that everything is work- 
ing properly. Do not wait to discover pump or engineer's 
valve defects when your train is in and ready to proceed. 

Q. How should an engineer handle the brake on 
his engine in coupling to a train ? 

A. In backing onto a train, especially an empty one, 
he should make two or three applications of his driver 
and tender brakes, and leave his valve on lap when 
coupling to the train. 

Q. Why is this done ? 

A. To couple to the train with reduced auxiliary 
pressures. 

When the cocks between the engine and tender are 
turned, in coupling a train to an engine, the brakes are 
usually applied on the engine and tender on account of 
the reduction caused by the air flowing back into the 
train. If the train line is long and empty, the main 
reservoir pressure might flow back and equalize with 
that in the train line at so low a pressure that it might 
not be able to overcome the tank and driver auxiliary 
pressures so as to force these triples to release position. 
In this case the two brakes would be stuck, and if more 
cars were to be picked up, we would have to wait to 
pump up, or get down and bleed these two brakes off. 
If we had backed onto the train with reduced auxiliary 



244 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pressures on the engine and tender, we would not have 
met with this trouble, as the main reservoir pressure 
could then have raised that in the train line sufficiently 
high to have released the brakes. 

Q. What should be done after getting our cars 
placed in the train ? 

A. We should wait until everything is fully charged. 

Q. How can we tell when the train is charged? 

A. The pump will about stop ; or place the valve on 
lap, and if everything is charged the black hand will not 
fall. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. A thorough test of piston travel, leaks, and 
retaining valves should be made before attempting to 
handle the train on grades. 

Q. How much reduction should be made ? 

A. A gradual twenty-pound reduction. 

Q. Why is it necessary to make a test ? 

A. A part of the pistons may be traveling against 
the cylinder heads, the travel may be too short, the 
retainers may not be good, or there may be something 
wrong wdth a triple that would throw the whole train 
into emergency when the service application was desired, 
in which case freight might be shifted or broken, especi- 
ally in a train partly equipped with air brakes. 

Q. In testing brakes, from wh rt point should 
they always be applied and released ? 
A. From the engine. 

Q. How could it happen that a brakeman could 
turn an angle cock at the rear of the train and 
apply the brakes, and an engineer could release them, 
hut that the engineer could not set them from the 
engine ? 



Train Handling. 245 

A. The lining of a hose might be loose, so that the 
engineer could throw air back into the train to release 
the brakes, but when a reduction was made, the air 
flowing in the opposite direction might roll the lining 
up and close the hose. 

Q. fs this a common occurence ? 

A. No, but it is by no means unheard of. 

Q. What else should always be tested? 

A. The train line, to see if it leaks, and how much. 

Q. How should this be done ? 

A. By making a seven-pound reduction in service 
position and then placing the valve on lap. Watch the 
black hand, and the fall of it will show the leak on the 
train line. 

Q. Will not a leak on the train line shozv if the 
valve is simply lapped without first applying the 
brakes ? 

A. It will in time, but not nearly so quickly as by 
the other way. 

Q. Why not ? 

A. If the valve is simply lapped, the brakes are not 
applied, the triples are in release position, and the feed 
grooves connect the auxiliaries and train line. If there 
is a leak in the train line with the triples in release posi- 
tion, the air from the auxiliaries will leak through the 
triple feed grooves back into the train line, and not only 
the train-line but the auxiliary pressures will have to be 
reduced before the black hand on the gauge will register 
the leak. 

Q. Why is the other way quicker ? 

A. If the brakes are first applied and the valve then 
placed on lap, the feed grooves in the triples between the 
auxiliaries and train line have been closed and the leak 



246 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

simply has to reduce the train-line pressure when the 
black hand will register the leak. With a large volume 
of air a given leak will reduce the pressure much more 
slowly than the same leak drawing air from a smaller 
volume. 

Q. Just as soon as a train tips over the summit 
of a hill y what should be done? 

A. A reduction of train-line pressure should be made 
to be sure that no angle cocks have been turned and 
that the brakes take hold properly, also to get the use of 
the retainers as soon as possible. 

Q. How can zue tell if the angle cocks back of the 
tank are properly turned? 

A. By the sound of the train-line exhaust. The 
more cars of air the greater the volume of air on the 
train line, and the longer the equalizing piston will have 
to stay up to make a given reduction. 

Q. What should be done if the brakes do not 
hold properly y or we know by the train-line exhatist 
that an angle cock has been closed? 



"& l 



A. Blow brakes before the train gets to moving 
fast. 

Q. How much reduction shotcld be made for the 
first ? 

A. Not less than five pounds, and after we get over 
fifteen cars it is better to make a seven-pound reduction. 

Q. I11 a part air train, what would be the harm 
in starting with a ten-pound reduction ? 

A. The brakes setting hard on the air-brake cars 
would cause the slack on the non-air cars to run up 
hard, causing a jar that would be likely to damage the 
car or the contents, to say nothing of the effect on the 
crew in the caboose. 



Train Handling. 247 

Q. Why is a light reduction liable not to set 
the brakes, especially on a long train ? 

A. Because, with a large volume of train-line pressure, 
reductions are made so slowly that there is a tendency 
for auxiliary pressure to feed through the triple feed 
grooves into and equalize with that in the train line, in 
which case the triple pistons would not move; or, if they 
did, the air going from the auxiliary into the brake 
cylinder very slowly would blow through the leakage 
grooves past the pistons and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. How much should be made for the second 
reduction ? 

A. This is governed largely by circumstances, but 
the best results with long trains will be gotten if no 
very light reductions are made. If the reduction is 
being made on a long train and the packing rings of 
some of the triples are a little loose, there is a tendency 
on the part of the auxiliary pressure, that should go to 
the brake cylinders, to leak back into the train line 
by the packing ring. 

Q. We continue our train-line reductions tintil 
finally our brakes are full set, that is, all the auxil- 
iary and brake-cylinder pressures have equalized. 
How much reduction is usually necessary to accom- 
plish this, if the piston travel is not over 8 inches? 

A. About twenty pounds, if it is made with one re- 
duction ; but in handling a train on a grade, if we 
needed to get all we could, it would be permissible to 
make a twenty-five-pound reduction. 

Q. Give the reason for this last statement. 

A. In descending a grade, we may have gone two, 
three, or four miles, while we have been making a twenty- 
pound reduction. Naturally, some of the air put into 
the brake cylinders has escaped by the packing leathers 



24S Air-Brakk Catechism. 

to the atmosphere in going this distance, and making 
another train-line reduction will let more auxiliary press- 
ure to the cylinders. Where the twenty-pound reduc- 
tion was made with one reduction, the air had no time 
to leak away by the cylinder packing leathers. 

Q. Suppose we had already made a twenty-five- 
pound reduction and the packing leathers in the 
brake cylinders were practically tight, if we con- 
tinued taking air from the train line, wotdd the 
brakes be set any harder f 

A. No. 

Q. Would we lose any braking power ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. How would we lose braking power ? 

A. The brake is already full set, that is, the auxil- 
iary and brake-cylinder pressures are equal ; with a 
further reduction of train-line pressure, no more auxil- 
iary pressure can go to the cylinder ; but just as soon as 
the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the 
train line to overcome the resistance of the graduating 
spring in the triple, the triple piston will be forced to 
emergency position, and we will have a direct connec- 
tion between the auxiliary and brake cylinder through 
the emergency port in the end of the slide valve. The 
train-line pressure being less than that in the auxiliary 
and cylinder, both these pressures will begin leaking by 
the packing ring of the triple piston into the train line, 

Q. Is there any other way in which we would 
lose braking power by too heavy a train-line re- 
duction ? 

A. Yes ; the train-line check in the emergency part 
of the triple is seldom air-tight, owing to corrosion. 
When the train-line pressure is less than that in the 
brake cylinder, the brake-cylinder pressure forces the 



Train Handling. 249 

rubber-seated valve from its seat and leaks by the train- 
line check into the train line. 

Q. Is there usually any warning to let the en- 
gineer know he has made too heavy a reduction ? 

A. Yes ; especially on a long train, where there are 
more packing rings to leak. 

Q. What is it? 

A. Under these circumstances the equalizing piston 
is likely to rise of its own accord, causing a blow 7 at the 
train-line exhaust. 

Q. What causes the piston to rise? 

A. The engineer reduced the little drum pressure in 
order to cause the equalizing piston to rise and reduce 
the train-line pressure. It seated when the train line 
was a trifle less than the little drum pressure. When 
too heavy a train-line reduction had been made, we saw 
that the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures fed back 
into the train line. The train line now being greater 
than the little drum pressure, the equalizing piston is 
forced from its seat, and the blow at the train-line ex- 
haust continues as long as air is feeding into the train 
line from the auxiliaries and brake cylinders. 

Q. Does the equalizing piston alia ays rise and 
give this warning? 

A. No ; if the packing ring in the equalizing piston 
is too loose, the air feeds by and equalizes the little drum 
and train-line pressures, but the braking power is lost 
just the same. 

Q. Is the triple piston supposed to form a joint 
on the leather gasket between the triple head and 
the main body of the triple ? 

A. Yes, when the gasket is new, but the gasket 
dries out so that the surface is not smooth. 



250 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What places should we pick out, if possible in 
which to recharge ? 

A. Where the grade lets up a little and on curves 
where a train binds. 

0. To release brakes, where should the handle of 
the engineer s valve be placed? 
A, In full release position. 
O. How long should it be left here ? 

A, This is governed entirely by the length of the 
train. If, in descending a grade, both hands on the 
gauge show that the train-line and main reservoir press- 
ures equalize below seventy pounds, the valve should 
be left in this position until both hands start to go above 
seventy, If the pressures equalize above seventy pounds 
when the valve is thrown to full release and stay 
there, the valve should be moved to running position 
as soon as the brakes are released, so as not to over- 
charge the auxiliaries. 

Q a Why, on a long train, should the valve be left 
in full release position until both hands start above 
seventy pounds ? 

A. A large port connects the main reservoir and 
train line in this position and a small one in running 
position, and we get the benefit of the excess pressure 
from the main reservoir in recharging ; the pump works 
faster, and we can charge the train much more quickly, 
because the train-line pressure being higher forces air 
into the auxiliaries faster. 

Brakes are likely to stick and wheels slide, especially 
on a long train, if we try to release brakes in running 
position. 

Q. Why does the pump work faster ? 
A. Because there is less main reservoir pressure for 
it to work against. 



Train Handling. 251 

Q. Why do the last three or four pounds feed 
more slowly into the train line, if the valve is put in 
running position ? 

A. Because when, in running position, the train-line 
pressure is almost up to that at which the train-line gov- 
ernor is adjusted, the spring in the governor begins to 
be compressed and allow the little feed valve to partly 
close, in which case the pump will compress air faster 
than it can get through the train-line governor. When 
the main reservoir is charged to ninety pounds, the 
pump practically stops, and this is likely to happen be- 
fore the auxiliaries are fully recharged. 

Q. Why will some brakes stick in trying to re- 
lease them in running position ? 

A. Because the train-line pressure rising slowly may 
feed by some triple piston-packing rings, and allow auxil- 
iary pressure to keep equal with that in the train line. 

Q. Why will the wheels slide in this case ? 

A. Because the brake on this car has been left full 
set and the auxiliary fully recharged. A five-pound re- 
duction will probably set this brake in full with a press- 
ure of sixty-five pounds, and this is more than is safe, 
especially with a light car, If a brake once sticks it is 
very likely to remain so, as the auxiliary and brake- 
cylinder pressures equalize so high that it requires a 
higher train-line pressure to release this brake, and the 
train-line pressure increasing slowly, gives the air a bet- 
ter chance to leak by the triple packing ring. A brake 
acting this way may be all right if handled properly. 

Q. In descending a grade after getting the use 
of the retainer and having everything recharged, 
why is a five-pound reduction much more effectual 
than a five-pound reduction made without the use 
of the retainer ? 



252 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Because in one case we are putting five pounds 
from the auxiliary into fifteen pounds in the cylinder, 
and in the other we are putting five pounds from the 
auxiliary into an empty cylinder, and a part of that put 
in blows through the leakage groove before the piston 
travels far enough to close it. 

Q. If a twenty-pound train-line reduction will 
apply a brake in f nil without the use of the retainer, 
how much reduction ought to set the brake in full 
after getting its use ? 

A. Not over fifteen pounds. 

Q. If all retainers are being used, is it necessary 
after charging up to make a five or seven pound for 
our first reduction ? 

A. Yes, some of the retainers might have been out 
of order, so as not to hold any air in the cylinder, and 
less than a five-pound reduction would not catch these 
brakes again. 

Q. What shotcld an engiiteer do, if, when he is 
not using the brakes, he feels them applying so as 
perceptibly to diminish the speed of the train ? 

A. He should place the handle of the engineers 
valve on lap. 

Q. Why f 

A. Probably a hose has burst, or the conductor is 
using the conductor's valve. If the valve is not lapped , 
the main reservoir pressure will be lost, and there will 
be no pressure with which to release the brakes and re- 
charge the auxiliaries. 

Q. Which is less hurtful, a leak that will grad- 
ually slow a tram up, or one that will simply keep 
the train running steadily ? 



Train Handling. 255 

A. A leak that will slow a train up is much to be 
preferred. 

Q. Why ? 

A. If the leak simply runs the train steadily and the 
engineer allows the pressure to gradually leak away be- 
cause he seems to be making a nice, smooth run, he 
would have a hard time stopping the train if necessity 
demanded it, after the pressure had leaked down to fifty 
pounds. 

Q. Should an engineer try to make as smooth a 
run with air as can be done with hand brakes ? 

A. As a rule, no, although on some light grades a 
few retainers will run them smoothly. On heavy grades 
and long trains it is necessary to slow up to recharge. 

Q. What should always be done, where possible, 
in making train-line reductions? 
A. Watch the gauge. 

Q. How do you account for the fact that some- 
times, after a seven-pound reduction of little drum 
pressure is made and the valve lapped, the gauge 
records only a five-pound reduction when the train- 
line exhaust closes ? 

A. The packing ring in the equalizing piston is 
loose, and train-line pressure has fed by it into the little 
drum. 

Q. Is this more likely to happen on a long or a 
short train ? 

A. On a long train, 

Q. Why ? 

A. As there is a greater volume of air on the train 
line of a long train, it takes longer to reduce the press- 
lire, and the train-line pressure has a longer time to 
leak in the manner described. 



254 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. If a quick reduction is made in emergency 
with the engine alone, and the valve is then placed 
on lap, why is the tank or driver brake likely to 
kick off after a few seconds, although they would 
stay set in service application ? 

A. In emergency position, air is drawn direct from 
the train line without taking any from the little drum. 
When the valve is placed on lap, the little drum press- 
ure leaks by the packing ring of the equalizing piston, 
raises the train-line pressure, and kicks off one or both 
brakes. 

Q. Why will this happen on an engine and not 
on a train ? 

A. The volume of air on the train line of an engine 
alone is very small, and a slight leak into it is sufficient 
to raise the train-line pressure and release the brake. 
With a train, the train-line volume is so large that the 
leakage into it from the little drum is not sufficient to 
affect the triples. 

Q. The release of the brakes on the engine alone, 
after the tise of the emergency, is ascribed by some to 
the surge of air. Is this the cause? 

A. No ; a surge of air would release the brake almost 
instantly. The brake does not release sometimes until 
five or ten seconds have passed. 

Q. Why will this happen on one engine and not 
on another ? 

A. This simply means that on one the triple piston- 
packing rings are looser than that in the equalizing 
piston, and the train-line pressure feeds by the triple 
piston and equalizes with that in the auxiliaries. 

Q. The above usually happens when stopping an 



Train Handling. 255 

engine at a water-crane or on a turntable. How 
are these stops best made with the air ? 

A. One application is best to nse with an engine 
alone. If we find that we are stopping three or four 
feet short, open the throttle, and the engine can be helped 
along a short distance and a smoother stop be made. 

Q. What happens every time you use the emer- 
gency on a turntable ? 

A. You strike the table a blow equal to the weight 
of your engine multiplied by the speed at which you are 
moving, and then, if the turntable breaks down, wonder 
why the company does not provide a decent table. 

Q. In making a water-tank stop with a pas- 
senger train, how should it be done to avoid a jar to 
the train and passengers ? 

A. The stop should be made with two applications 
of the brake, except the grade is too steep and the press- 
ure too low for safety. 

Q. How do we handle the valve to make the 
first release so that the brakes will respond with the 
first reduction ? 

A. When the speed of the train has been reduced to 
about three miles an hour, throw the valve handle to 
full release and bring it back on lap immediately. 

Q. Why bring it back on lap ? 

A. So as not to raise the train-line pressure too high. 
The feed grooves in the triples are small, and have only 
three or four seconds in which to equalize the train-line 
and auxiliary pressures. If the valve is left in full re- 
lease or running position, and the train-line pressure gets 
to seventy pounds, and there is, say, only fifty-five pounds 
in the auxiliaries, the triple pistons will not move to serv- 
ice position until over a fifteen-pound reduction of train- 
line pressure has been made. By the time we have made 
this amount of reduction in service position we shall 



2^6 Air-Brake Catechism. 

have gone by the water-crane, unless we use the emer- 
gency, and that is what is usually done if the engineer 
is not up to date. 

0. When should brakes be released on a pas- 
senger train f 

A. Just before the train stops. 

Q. What should be done on a grade just heavy 
enough so that the train will start with the brakes 
released ? 

A. Stop the same as at a water-crane. No jar will 
be felt with a light application. 

Q. How about a heavy grade ? 

A. Our stop will then depend on the grade and our 
pressure. Safety should be of first importance, even 
if the stop is a trifle rough. 

Q. What makes the jar, if the brakes are not 
released before the train stops? 

A. With the brakes set hard, the trucks are dis- 
torted, and it is the struggle of the trucks to right them- 
selves that causes the jar. 

Q. Can brakes be released longer before stopping 
after a light or a heavy reduction ? 

A. After a heavy reduction, as there is more air in 
the cylinders to be gotten rid of, and the brakes release 
more slowly. 

O. What is meant by an applicatio?i ? 

A. It covers all the time from the moment the 
brake is applied until it is released ; three or four re- 
ductions may be made during one application. 

Q. In making a stop with a freight train, when 
should brakes be released? 

A, After the train comes to a full stop, to avoid 



Train Handling. 



-o/ 



breaking the train in two if the slack runs out hard in 
releasing before stopping. 

Q. If we have stopped short with a freight 
train, and need to release before stopping to pull up 
farther, what should be done ? 

A. We should wait for the slack to adjust itself in 
the train before using steam. Even then the steam 
should be used very cautiously. 

Q. In running passenger trains over cross-overs 
to get around freights, what care should be taken ? 

A. To do this, brakes have to be used when flagged, 
at the upper cross-over, lower cross-over, and usually at a 
station. We should charge up as much as possible 
after each application. Do not follow the plan of re- 
leasing and putting the valve on lap in such a case, to 
be sure the triples wall respond quickly. They will 
respond quickly, but if the station stop is on a grade, 
you may not have air enough left to make it when you 
get there. 

Q. What is the ttsual cause of trains r tinning 
away ? 

A. Making a great many reductions without oc- 
casionally charging up, or allowing the pressure to leak 
away, because the train is running steady, and then 
when we get ready to recharge, not having enough air 
left to slow up the train. 

Q. On a fast passenger run, how may time be 
saved in using the brake ? 

A. By waiting longer before applying the brakes and 
then making a ten-pound reduction at the start. 

Q. Will this not jar the passengers ? 

A. Not when going fast. Passenger trains are con- 
tinuous, and there is very little slack to run up. A ten- 



258 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pound reduction made with a train moving ten miles an 
hour would produce a very unpleasant sensation to pas- 
sengers, where at forty miles an hour it would not be 
noticed. This is explained in the subject High-Speed 
Brake. 

Q. Should brakes be tested in taking on cars f 

A. Yes, to be sure that the brakes on these cars 
work properly , and that the brakes back of them can be 
applied and released through them. 

Q. When all retainers on a train are not neces- 
sary, how should they be used ? 

A. At the head end if the grade is short ; otherwise 
change them around and use them on every other car, 
so as not to overheat any wheels. 

Q. If the brakes are applied and the engineer 
wishes to release a7id drift two or three hundred 
feet before stopping, what should be done ? 

A. Enough retainers should be put in operation to 
keep the slack bunched. 

Q. When should hand brakes be used? 

A. On the rear of a part air train when backing it 
into a siding, or, if it stands on a knoll, to keep the 
slack from running back. 

Q. Should hand brakes and air- brakes be used 
together on the same car ? 

A. This is a risky practice. If the two brakes work 
together, we are very likely to slide wheels, and if they 
work in opposition, there is danger of a brakeman being 
thrown from the car, and the hand brake being applied 
will take up the slack in the brake rigging, so that the 
piston cannot get by the leakage groove. 

Q. If hand brakes be used back of the air, if 



Train Handling. 259 

there are not enough air brakes to control the train, 
what is likely to happen ? 

A. This is likely to produce a bad effect when the 
air brakes are released. If the retainers are poor and 
allow the slack to run out, the train may be broken in 
two. 

Q. If hand brakes are to be used u nth the air, 
where should they be applied ? 
A. Next to the air. 

Q. Should driver brakes be cut in when descend- 
ing a heavy grade ? 

A. Always, or so much more work is thrown on the 
car brakes. The use of a water brake would, of course, 
be an exception to this rule. * 

Q. If an air-brake train should be stalled on a 
grade, should part of the train be left with air 
brakes to hold them until the engine comes back f 

A. No ; the air brakes should be released one at a 
time, and the hand brakes applied. If left with the air 
holding them, the air might leak off and allow the 
train to run away. 

Q. When brakes are full set, the long travel 
brakes are easier to release. They may be released 
and leave the short travel brakes applied. Is this 
good practice in holding trains? 

A. No ; it is very bad practice. A train may be 
broken in two in this way. 

Q. If brakes stick and will not release by placing 
the valve in full release, what should be done ? 

A. Make a full service reduction and then, with a 
full excess pressure, throw to full release. If a release 
from the Engine is possible, this will accomplish it. 



26o Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What harm is there in pulling hose apart 
instead of uncoupling them ? 

A. The couplings are likely to be sprung so that 
they cannot be coupled again, and the train line is likely 
to be torn from the car or engine. 

Q. Does it do any harm to lean on the rotary 
handle when the brakes are applied? 

A. Yes; if the dovetail piece that fits into the rotary 
is tight on account of dirt and gum, the rotary may be 
cocked so as to allow main reservoir pressure to feed into 
the train line under the rotary and release some of the 
brakes. 

Q. What is the trouble, when there is a leak on 
the train line, if the engine is alone, but coupled to 
tight cars, the leak docs not show ? 

A. The leak is in the angle cock at the rear of the 
tender. When coupled to a train, the leak is not noticed 
as the cock is open. With the engine alone the cock 
leaking allows air to pass out of the hose to the atmos- 
phere. 

Q. In double heading, which engine should han- 
dle the brakes ? 

A. The lead engine. 

Q. What should the second e7igineer do ? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock under his valve, and under 
no circumstance, unless told to, should he cut in and 
interfere with the work of the lead engine. 

Q. If the pusher engine has no cut-otit cock, 
what should be done ? 

A. The valve should be placed on lap. 

Q. In this case, why does the equalizing piston 
sometimes rise ? 



Train Handling. 261 

A. Because the lead engineer increases train-line 
pressure to release the brakes, and the pressure under- 
neath the equalizing piston is greater than that above it. 

Q. How may it be seated f 

A. By putting the handle in full release position 
long enough to charge the little drum and seat the 
piston. 

Q. hi case of emergency , when it is necessary for 
us to leave the engine, what should be done f 

A. Throw the engineer's valve to full emergency 
position and leave it there. In our hurry, if we tried to 
lap the valve, we might get it into running position and 
release the brakes. 

Q. Why ought we never to bring our valve back 
from emergency position too quickly ? 

A. There might be two or three cars cut out, a 
couple of plain triples, a contracted passage, or a couple 
of cars that would not go into quick action on account 
of dirty strainers. If these cars were together, they 
would not help to carry the quick action back. Gener- 
ally a quick-action triple will not send a quick reduction 
through five cars which are cut out. In this case, if the 
engineer's valve had been lapped too quickly, the surge 
of air ahead from the rear end would release the head 
brakes, and all we would have would be a very light 
service reduction on the cars back of those cut out. If 
we leave the engineer's valve in emergency position long 
enough, we could at least get the full service application 
on these cars, and the emergency on those ahead of the 
cars cut out. 

Q Should the engine be reversed when the 
driver brakes are applied, ij we wish to stop quickly? 

A. No ; the following test, made by Mr. Thomas, 
Assistant General Manager of the N. C. and St. L- 5 



262 Air-Brake Catechism. 

clearly demonstrates that the air brake used alone us 
better than the brakes with the reverse lever, or than 
the reverse lever alone. 

The result of these tests was published in the J pj 
Air-Brake Proceedings, and is given on pages 264 and 
265. 

The conditions of the test were as follows : 

Driving brake power, seventy per cent.; tender, one 
hundred per cent.; N. C. & St. L. coaches, ninety per 
cent.; Pullman sleeper, forty to one hundred and one 
per cent. 

Boyer speed recorder was used and tests were made : 
first, brakes applied ; second, engine reversed ; third, 
sand lever opened. Track was level, in best possible 
condition, and all circumstances favorable. 

From the record of tests the following valuable infor- 
mation was derived : 

First. Best stops are made with braking power not 
quite strong enough to skid wheels. 

Second. Length of stop is the same in reversing the 
engine whether cylinder cocks are open or closed. 

Third. The wheels did not lock rigidly when the 
engine was reversed without the brakes being used. 

Fourth. The tests demonstrated that the brakes used 
alone are better than with the engine being reversed. 
The stop is quicker, and there are no flat spots obtained. 

Fifth. Enough sand is much better than too much. 

Sixth. Sand should be used before wheels start skid- 
ding, as its use will not start the wheels revolving when 
once skidding ; it will simply increase the flat spots. 

Seventh. Sand being used on a straight track, the 
drivers did not lock when the engine was reversed, but 
on a curve they would. On a curve the engine rocks, 
and sand is not so likely to strike the rail. 

Eighth. In expected emergencies, the drivers did not 
lock when sand was used before brakes were applied 
and engine reversed, but it took so long to get the sand 



Train Handling. 263 

running first that, in the end, the stop was not made as 
quickly as with unexpected emergencies where the 
engine was not reversed. 

Ninth. The unexpected emergencies are the ones that 
bear the most weight, as expected emergencies are prac- 
tically unheard of. 

The table on page 266 will be of interest, as it shows 
how quickly air-brake trains can be stopped when fitted 
with the Westinghouse quick-action brake. 

The train consisted of fifty Pennsylvania 60,000 capa- 
city box cars whose light weight was 30,000 pounds 
each. 



264 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



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266 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



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DESCRIPTION OF TESTS. 

i. Emergency stops, train running at * twenty miles 
per hour. 

2. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles 
per hour, 

3. Applying brakes while train was standing still, to 
show rapidity of application. 

4. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles 
per hour. 

5. Service stops and time of release, Exhibition of 
smoothness of ordinary stop and time of release. 

6. Hand brake stops at * twenty miles per hour with 
five brakemen at their posts. At Buffalo there were 
seven brakemen . 

7. Breaking train in two. 

8. Emergency at * twenty miles per hour, the brake 
leverage having been increased to give the quickest stop 
possible. In the seven previous tests the usual safe 
braking power was used. 

9. Emergency stop at * forty miles per hour, same 
leverage as test 8. 

10. A train of twenty freight cars and a train of 
twelve ordinary passenger coaches, run along beside 
each other on parallel tracks, each being about the same 
weight and length of trains, and the brakes applied at 
the same time. This shows the relative stopping power 
of the old and the new brake. 

* Speed attempted ; actual speeds attained are given in statement 
and as read from speed gauge on engine. Fractions of miles and 
seconds are omitted. Two engines were used in making tests at St, 
Paul, and one in other tests. 



PIPING. 

O. What should be done in preparing pipe for 
use ? 

A. After bending the pipe it should be blown out 
with steam to get rid of scale and dirt. If there is no 
steam at hand, air should be used. Under no consider- 
ation should pipe be used without first being cleaned. 
All fins should be carefully removed to prevent their 
working loose and clogging strainers. 

Q. What should be done to the pipe while it is 
being blown out f 

A. It should be tapped lightly to loosen the scale. 

Q. What size pipe should be used in the differ- 
ent parts of the system f 

A. The sizes given in the air-brake catalogues are 
correct and should be strictly adhered to. 

Q. When using red lead on pipe, how should it 
be applied? 

A. Always on the outside of the thread to be screwed 
in, as in this way the red lead will not get inside the 
pipe. 

Q. In applying piping, what should be avoided? 

A. No sags should be allowed in which w T ater might 
collect ; where practicable, gentle bends should be sub- 
stituted for elbows, and very short bends should be 
avoided. 

Q. Why are elboivs or short bends tmdesirable ? 
A. The friction caused by them retards the flow of 
air when a sudden reduction is desired in emergency. 



Piping. 269 

Q. Could pipe work be so crooked and elbows so 
numerous on an engine that a sufficiently quick re- 
duction to cause emergency would not go through an 

engine? 

A. Yes ; this has been found so on engines, but the 
trouble was remedied when the number of elbows and 
bends was reduced. 

Q. How should pipe work be secured ? 

A. By clamps that will hold the pipe rigidly in 
place so as not to allow the pipes to be moved, holes to 
be chafed in them, or any vibration to exist. 

Q. After the pipe work is applied, what should 
be done ? 

A. It should be thoroughly tested under full press- 
ure, and the leaks detected by the use of soapsuds. 

Q. After the pipe is tested, what shoztld be done ? 

A. It should be painted with a rust-proof paint and 
one, if possible, that will not be affected by salt w r ater 
dripping from refrigerator cars or by the acid in soft 
coal. 

Q. Why is larger pipe tised on freight tJiau on 
passenger cars ? 

A. Because on a long freight train a sudden reduc- 
tion will travel through the large pipe more quickly, as 
the larger the pipe the less the friction exerted to the 
passage of the air. 

Q. Is there any other reason ? 

A. Yes ; in emergency, with quick-action triples air 
from the train line is put into the brake cylinder ; a 
freight car being shorter than a passenger car, the larger 
pipe makes the volume of air in the train pipe more 
nearly equal to that in the smaller pipe used on the 
longer passenger cars. 



CAM BRAKE. 

The following simple rule to find the braking power 
developed by a cam brake is given by Mr. H. A. 
Wahlert. 

Take two wires and place them between the brake 
shoe and the wheel ; one at the top and one at the 
bottom of the shoe. Apply the brakes fully, and then 
measure the piston travel. Now release the brakes, re- 
charge, and then apply fully again. Measure the piston 
travel again, and note how much more it has increased. 
Divide the additional travel had upon removing the 
wires by the thickness of the wire, and multiply this by 
the value of the cylinder. The result is the braking 
power on each brake shoe. 

Four times this power is the total braking power de- 
veloped on all four shoes. 

EXAMPLE. 

Thickness of wires, \ inch. 

Piston travel, with wires inserted according to rule, 
3 inches. 

Piston travel, with wires removed, 3 J inches. 

Value of 8-inch cylinder, 2500 pounds. 

3 J inches — 3 inches = \ inch. 

\ inch ~^- \ inch = 4. 

2500 pounds X 4 = 10,000 pounds on each brake 
shoe. 

10,000 pounds X 4 = 40,000 pounds on all four 
brake shoes. 



BRAKING POWER AND LEVERAGE. 

Q. What is meant by braking power ? 

A. The force applied by the shoes against the 
wheels to stop the motion of a car. 

Q. What is meant by the percentage of braking 
power ? 

A. The total brake-shoe pressure as compared to the 
light weight of the car. The percentage is found by 
dividing the total braking' power by the light weight of 
a car. 

Q. What per cent of the weight of a car is used 
as braking power 011 a freight car ? 

A. Usually about seventy per cent or seven-tenths 
of the light weight of the car. 

Q. On a passenger car ? 

A. Usually ninety per cent or nine-tenths of the 
light weight of the car, excepting with the high-speed 
brake. 

Q. Can these percentages be used if the car has 
two six-wheel trucks, and only two pairs of wheels 
on each car are braked ? 

A. No ; the percentages given refer to a certain per 
cent of the total weight on the rail of the braked 
wheels. 

Q. IV hat per cent of braking power is used i?i 
designing driver brakes ? 



272 A 1 r-Bra k e Catec h ism. 

A. Usually seventy-five per cent or three-fourths of 
the weight on the drivers when the engine is ready for 
the road. 

Q. What per cent of braking power is ttsed on 
tenders ? 

A. Usually one hundred per cent. 

Q. Why is a larger per cent of braking power 
used on tenders than on engines or cars ? 

A. Because tenders are practically always loaded. 

Q. Hoiv were these percentages determined on as 
safe ? 

A. By actual tests in the different kinds of service. 

Q. What brake-cylinder pressure is ttsed in fig- 
uring the braking power with the different sizes of 
cylinders ? 

A. Sixty pounds where using quick-action triples, 
and fifty pounds with the plain triples are figured as the 
cylinder pressure when the brakes are full set. 

This does not refer to the quick-action triple as used 
with the reinforced brake. 

Q. How do we calculate the force acting on the 
push rod due to the pressure in the cylinder acting 
on the piston ? 

A. Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself ; the 
product by the decimal .7854, and this last product by 
the pressure in the brake cylinder. 

Q. What force would act on the push rod of an 
8-inch cylinder using a quick-action triple? 

A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 60 = 3015, usually figured as 
3000 pounds. 

Q. With a plain triple? 



Braking Power and Leverage. 273 

A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 50 = 2513, usually figured as 
2500 pounds. 

Q. Explain the difference in the percentage of 
braking power of a freight car light, and the same 
car when loaded to its full capacity. 

A. Seventy per cent of the light weight of a freight 
car is considered safe braking power. 

If the light weight of a freight car is 25,000 pounds, 
it is given 17,500 pounds braking power. If the capac- 
ity of the car is 60,000 pounds, when loaded to its full 
capacity the total weight of the car and contents is 25,- 
000 + 60,000, or 85,000 pounds, but we have only the 
brake-shoe pressure to stop the car loaded that is used 
when it is light. In emergency, we get about sixty 
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder and have seventy 
per cent braking power with a light car, but with the 
car loaded, when the brakes are set in emergency, the 
braking power is only twenty and one-half per cent of 
the total weight of this car. 

In ordinary service application we obtain about fifty 
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder. This reduces 
the maximum braking power one-sixth, so that we use 
fifty-eight per cent braking power when the car is light, 
but when the car is loaded, the percentage of braking 
power to the total weight of the car and contents is only 
seventeen per cent. 

Q. How is the percentage of braking power of a 
passenger car affected by its load f 

A. Not very much, because ninety per cent of the 
light weight of the car is used as braking power, and 
when loaded, the additional weight is seldom as much as 
10,000 pounds. 

Q. What forces are figured as acting at the push 
rod with the different sized cylinders, the cylinder 
pressure being figured at fifty pounds in service and 



274 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



sixty in emergency with tfye quick-action triple, and 
fifty pounds with the plain triple in either service 
or emergency ? 

A. Service application : 
6 in. 8 in. io in. 



1400 2500 4000 

Emergency application : 
1700 3000 4700 



12 m. 
5600 

6800 



14 in. 
7700 

9200 



By using the following cuts and formulae, the brak- 
ing power on a car with any kind of leverage may be 
figured. 

_a ^ c 




LEVER OF 1st KIND 
Fig. 84. 





W= 



FORMULA 
Fxb - = 



Fxb 
W 



Wxa 



b=*Ua 



Fig. 85.— IvKvkr of ist Kind. 

There are three classes of levers : 

I. When the fulcrum c (Figs. 84 and 85) is between 
the force F and the weight W. 

II. When the weight IF (Figs. 86 and 87) is between 
the force F and the fulcrum c. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 275 

III. When the force F (Figs. 88 and 89) is between 
the weight W and the fulcrum c. 

Figs. 84 and 85 represent a lever of the first class. 

Q. What brake-shoe pressure W will result 
with a force F = 2000 pounds, b = 16 inches, 
a = 8 inches ? 

A TTr F X b 1JT 2000 X 16 TT7 . 

A. W= or W= - or 17=4000 

(i 8 

pounds. 

The forces W and F act in the same direction on the 
levers, and the force at c acts on the lever in an opposite 
direction from both and must be equal to their' sum, or 
6000 pounds. 

Q. What is the distance a ifF = 2000, b = 16 
inches, and W = 4000 ? 

Fx b 1 . . 
A. a = — =7— 5 substituting values, 

2000 X 16 o • 1 

a = or a = 8 inches. 

4000 

Q. What is the force F, when W = 4000, a = 
8 inches, and b =16 inches ? 

A. F= — - — ; substituting values, 

™ 4000 X 8 " . 

i* = ^ — or I = 2000 pounds. 

Q 9 How do we find b if W = 4000 pounds^ 
F = 2000 pounds, and a = 8 inches ? 

A . Wx a , . 

A. = — — — ; substituting values, 

4000 X 8 . 

5 _ jl or 6 = 16 inches. 

2000 



276 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Figs. 86 and 87 represent levers of the second class 
with the weight between the fulcrum c and the force F. 

Assume that F = 2000 pounds, a = 8 inches, d = 
16 inches, and b = a + d } or 24 inches. 



— a — 




=7=T 



W 



Q. 

A. 



LEVER OF 2nd KIND 

Fig. 86. 

What is W? 

w=?- xb 



a 



; substituting values, 



jr. 



_2QOOX 24 W = 



or TF= 6000 pounds. 




W= 



FORMULAE. 
Fxb 



F _ Wxa 
b 



Wu, 



FiG.87.— I^kvkr of 2ND Kind. 

In this class of levers we see that the forces F and TF 
act in opposite directions on the lever, and the force ex r 
erted at c will be equal to the difference between F and 
W y or 4000 pounds. 

We may compute values for a, E or b ) as was illus- 
trated in the first class of levers, if we know the values 
of the other three. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 



277 



Figs. 88 and 89 represent the third class of lever with 
the force F exerted between the weight W and the 
fulcrum c. 

Assume that F = 2000 pounds, b = 8 inches, 
d ~ 16 inches, a = b + d } or 24. 




Fig. 89.— Lever of 3RD kind, 
Q. What is W? 
F x b 



W- 



; substituting values, 



jjr=- or W = 666f pounds. 

24 

TF and J 7 act in opposite directions on the lever in 
this case, and the force exerted at the fulcrum c will be 
equal to the difference between .Fand IF or, in this case, 
I 333i pounds. 



278 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



The other three formulae may be used to find the 
value of a, F, or b when the other three values are 
known, as already shown. 

Besides speaking of levers as first, second, and third 
class, they are known by their proportions as 1 to 1, 2 
to 1, 2 J to 1, etc., according to the amount the force 
F is raised or diminished, due to the class and propor- 
tions of the levers employed. 

To find the proportion of a lever of the first class, 
divide the distance of the fulcrum c to the force F by 
the distance from the fulcrum c to the weight W; or, re- 
ferring to Fig. 84, it would be : 

b ~^- a or 16-^-8 = 2. This proportion of lever 
would be called a 2 to 1 lever. 

The force F is multiplied by 2 at W. 

In the second class, or Fig. 86, the proportion of 
the lever would be represented by: 6^aor24-f-8 = 
3, or a 3 to 1 lever. 

In the third class, or Fig. 88, the proportion of the 
lever would be represented by: b ~ a or 8 -f- 24 = J, 
or a J to 1 lever, in which case the porportion and class 
of levers reduces the force 3 to 1 instead of increasing it. 



6800 LBS. 



© 



TO HAND BRAKE 



F £700 LBS. 




18" 




/13:28" 
i2200 LBS. / f 



-£-54-00 LBS. 



18" 

X 




SAME AS 

Mother end 



24"/ 



a 



Wl3500 LBS. 
fjd 



HODGE SYSTEM 



Fig. 90. 



Having studied the classes of levers, we will now 



Braking Power and Leverage. 279 

make a practical application of their use in figuring the 
proportion of the levers to be applied to a car of given 
weight. 

We wish to design a brake for a passenger car, the 
weight of which is 60,000 pounds, and use the Hodge 
system of levers as shown in the sketch. 

Ninety per cent or nine-tenths of 60,000 pounds is 
54,000 pounds. 54,000 pounds will be the safe braking 
power to apply to the wheels of a passenger car weigh- 
ing 60,000 pounds. 

54,000 -T- 4 = 13,500, or the amount of braking 
power to be developed at each brake beam. 

The length of the truck levers has to be determined 
from the truck construction. We will suppose the di- 
mensions to be — long end, 28 inches ; short end, 7 inches. 

The truck levers are of the second class and substitut- 
ing the values in the formula (Fig. 87). 

^ W X a ^ 12, too X 7 ti 

F = or F = -312. _ L or F =r 2700 

b 35 

That is, to get a power W of 13,500 pounds against 
the brake beam, a force of 2700 pounds is necessary at 
the top of the live truck lever. 

The forces F and W act on the live lever in opposite 
directions, so the force acting at fulcrum c will be 
13,500 — - 2700 = 10,800. This power is transmitted to 
the bottom of the dead lever, which is of the same class 
as the live lever ; but the force F is applied at the bot- 
tom instead of the top of the lever. 

We have from Fig. 87 : 

TI7 F X b TT7 10,800 X 30 1JT 

W = or W= — 1 2-, or W = 13,500 

a 24 

So that, with a force of 2700 pounds acting at the top 
of the live lever of the dimensions given, a power W of 
13,500 pounds is developed at each truck, brake beam. 



280 Air-Brake Catechism. 

The dead truck lever need not be of the same length 
as the live lever, but the proportions between the holes 
must be the same in each. 

The force of 2700 pounds that acts on the top of the 
live lever also acts at X, the end of the floating lever, 
and we must now determine what force must act on the 
rod that connects the end of the cylinder lever with the 
floating lever. 

This rod is connected at the middle of the floating 
lever, and the power at this point must be sufficient to 
develop a force of 2700 pounds at each end of the float- 
ing lever. 

The force exerted at the middle must be 2X2700 or 
5400 pounds, as half of this amount is given to each end 
of the floating lever. 

This 5400 pounds acting at the center of the floating 
lever must also act at the end of the cylinder lever, 
being connected directly with it. 

What we now wish to determine is, with any desired 
length over all, how must the holes be spaced in the 
cylinder lever that the pressure acting on the push rod 
will produce a force of 5400 pounds at the outer end of 
the cylinder lever. 

A 12-inch cylinder is recommended by the Westing- 
house Company to be used with this weight of car. The 
brake set in emergency with a 12-inch cylinder gives 
us a push at the piston rod of 6800 pounds. We will 
suppose the distance between the outside holes of the 
cylinder lever to be 30 inches. 

The following rule will enable us to locate the mid- 
dle hole in the cylinder lever to which the tie rod is 
attached. 

Multiply the force acting at the piston by the 
length of the lever between the outside holes, and 



Braking Power and Leverage. 281 

divide the product by the sum of the forces acting at 
both ends of the cylinder lever. The result will be 
the distance from the middle hole of the cylinder 
lever to the hole to which the connection running to 
the floating lever is attached. 

Applying this rule to our problem we have 
6800 x 3° = 204,000 
6800 + 5400 = 12,200 
204,000 -v 12,200 = 16.72 
30 — 16.72 = 13.28 

The distance between the holes at the short end is 
13.28 and the long end 16.72 inches, and, according to 
the rule, the long end is connected to the connection 
running to the floating lever. 

The force exerted at the middle hole of the cylinder 
lever is also communicated to a hole similarly placed in 
the other cylinder lever, so that, using the same levers, 
we will obtain the same braking power on the wheels of 
the other truck. 

In figuring the levers for the Stevens system of lever- 
age, the power desired at the top of the live lever is 
figured the same as just explained. 

When we know this force, we know that the same 
power has to exist at the outer end of the cylinder lever, 
as the Stevens system has no floating lever. 

This we figure by the rule already given for spacing 
the holes in the cylinder levers. 

To figure the braking power of a car already equipped, 
we start with the force acting on the piston rod and 
work towards the truck levers by the aid of the formulae 
given. 

To use the formulae, first determine the class of lever 
with which we have to deal. 

The foregoing illustrations were a practical applica- 



282 Air-Brake Catechism. 

tion of the formulae, in calculating the proportion of 
levers that would give a proper braking power on a car 
of known weight. 

We will now consider a shorter method of calculating 
the proportion of levers for a Hodge and for the Stevens 
systems of leverage for this same car. 

Fig. 90 (page 278) shows the Hodge system of levers. 
If this were a Stevens system, the floating lever would 
not be used, and the other end of the connection to the 
live lever of the truck would connect directly with the 
outer end of the cylinder lever. With the Stevens sys- 
tem the hand-brake connection runs from the brake 
mast direct to the top of the dead lever. 

(1.) To find the total braking power required : 

Subtract 10 per cent, of the weight of the car on the 
wheels to be braked for passenger cars, and 30 per cent, 
for freight cars. 

(2.) To find the leverage required : 

Divide the total braking power required by the total 
pressure on the piston. 

(3.) To find tlie proportion of the brake-beam levers: 

Divide the entire length of the lever by the short end, 
if the truck has a bottom connection ; if it has a middle 
connection, divide the long by the short end. 

(4.) To find the total brake-beam leverage : 

Multiply the proportion of the brake-beam levers by 
two, for the Hodge system, and by four for the Stevens 

.system. 

(5.) To find the proportion of tlie cylinder lever : 

Multiply the whole length of the lever by the required 
leverage and divide the product by the sum of the total 
brake-beam leverage plus the required leverage. 

If the required leverage is greater than the total brake- 



Braking Power and Leverage. 283 

beam leverage, the long end of the lever must go next 
to the cylinder ; if less, the short end goes next to the 
cylinder. 

The dead and live levers may be of different lengths, 
but must be of the same proportion to develop the same 
braking power. 

Example. 

Hodge system of levers, as shown on page 278, also 
the lengths of the truck levers. 

Weight of car, 60,000 lbs. 

A 12-inch cylinder is used with this weight of car. 

A pressure of 6,800 lbs. is developed on a 12-inch 
piston, using a quick-action triple valve. 

(1.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. 

(2.) 54,000 lbs. -s- 6,800 = 7.94, leverage required. 

(3.) 35 -*- 7 = 5, brake-beam leverage. 

(4.) 5 x 2 = 10, total brake-beam leverage. 

Assume the length of the outside holes of the cylinder 
lever to be 30 inches. 

(5-) (3° x 7-94) + (7-94 + 10) = 13.28 inches. 
30 — 13.28 = 16.72 inches. 

The required leverage is less than the total brake- 
beam leverage, hence the short end of the cylinder lever 
connects to the piston. 

Stevens system — same car. 

(1.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. 

(2.) 54,000 -5- 6,800 - 7.94, the leverage required. 

(3.) 35 h- 7 = 5, the brake-beam leverage. 

(4.) 5 x 4 = 20, the total brake-beam leverage. 

The cylinder lever is 30 inches between outside holes. 

(5-) (3° x 7.94) - (20 x 7.94) - 8.53 inches. 
30 — 8.53 = 21.47 inches. 

The required leverage is less than the total brake- 
beam leverage, hence, according to the rule, the short 
end of the cylinder lever (8.53 inches) connects to the 
piston. 



284 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




Stevens system 

OF 

CAR BRAKE LEVERS 



Fig. 91. 




HODGE SYSTEM 

OF 

CAR BRAKE LEVERS 



Fig. 92. 




TENDER BRAKE 
LEVERS 



Fig. 93. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 285 

Q. Give a rule by which the braking power on 
practically any engine, tender or car can be calcu- 
lated. 

A. Multiply the force acting by the distance from 
the force to the fulcrum, and divide this product by the 
distance from the work to the fulcrum ; the result will 
be the work that can be accomplished. 

In this rule let F = force, 
W = work, 

a = distance from the point at which 
the force is applied to the ful- 
crum, 
b = distance from the fulcrum to the 
point at which the work is to be 
accomplished. 

Then we have the following formula which can be 
used : 

F x a 

Q. What must be determined to use this rule 
intelligently ? 

A. It must always first be determined which point 
on any lever is the fulcrum. For instance, in consider- 
ing the piston lever (Fig. 90) the fulcrum is the rod 
which connects the piston and cylinder levers when we 
wish to ascertain the amount of work that can be done 
at the outer end of the piston lever. If we wish to 
ascertain the amount of work that can be done on the 
rod connecting the piston and cylinder levers, the ful- 
crum would then be the outer pin in the piston lever. 

To find the work accomplished on the brake shoes 
connected to the live truck levers (Fig. 90), the lower 
pin of the live lever is the fulcrum ; but if we wish to 
know what work is done on the bottom truck connec- 



286 Air-Brake Catechism. 

tion by a force acting on the top of the live lever, the 
point at which the brake shoe is shown represents the 
fulcrum. 

What has been said on the subject of brake leverage 
in this chapter is all useful, and a thorough understand- 
ing of it will enable one to make many short cuts in 
leverage problems presented for consideration, but the 
last very simple rule will be found to be sufficient with 
which to calculate the braking power in practically any 
system of leverage. 



SIZES OF CYLINDERS TO BE USED ON CARS 
AND TENDERS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. 

1 6-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights exceed 92,000 pounds. 

14-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights are between 68,000 and 92,000 pounds. 

1 2-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights are between 47,000 and 68,000 pounds. 

10-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights are between 30,000 and 47,000 pounds. 

6-inch brake cylinder on freight cars whose light 
weighty are less than 15,000 pounds. 

8-inch brake cylinder on freight cars whose light 
weights are between 15,000 and 40,000 pounds. 

10-inch brake cylinder on freight cars whose light 
weights exceed 40,000 pounds. 

8-inch brake cylinder on tenders whose light weights 
are less than 30,000 pounds. 

10-inch brake cylinder on tenders whose light weights 
are between 30,000 and 47,000 pounds. 

12-inch brake cylinder on tenders whose light weights 
are over 47,000 pounds. 



AMERICAN BRAKE LEVERAGE. 

Q. How do you find the braking power on an 
engine equipped with the American equalized brake 
as shown in sketch, page 218 ? 

A. Multiply the cylinder value, or total push on the 
piston, by the long lever arm, and divide this product 
by the short lever arm. This result multiplied by 2 
gives the total braking power. 

Q. With the long lever arm 25 inches long and 
the short arm 5, what braking power would we have y 
using 12-inch cylinders ? 

A. 56,000 pounds. 
Thus: 

5600 X 25 = 140,000 

140,000 -f- 5 = 28,000 

28,000 x 2 = 56,000 

Q. If any different design of rigging were used 
than that shown in the sketch, how could the braking 
power be figured ? 

A. First find the power exerted at the bottom of the 
rocker shaft and use this in connection with the cuts 
illustrating the different classes of levers. 

Q. What per cent of the total weight on drivers 
is tcsed as braking power with driver brakes ? 

A. Seventy-five per cent of the engine's weight on 
the drivers when ready for the road. 



American Brake Leverage. 



289 



Q. What braking power should be tcsed on an 
engine whose weight on drivers is 90,666 pounds? 
A. 90,666 x .75 = 68,000 pounds. 

Q. What weight should be on the drivers for 
an engine to have 68,000 pounds braking power ? 
A. 68,000 ~ .75 — 90,666 pounds. 

Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A 
and D on an engine having two pairs of drivers, to 
give an equal braking power on each wheel? 

A. The middle hole in A should be equidistant 
from the two outside ones. The hole in the lever at D 
should be so as to have the connection attached at k 
stand about parallel with the track. The corresponding 
hole k at the other end of the lever D must be placed the 
same distance from the other end. 




Fig, 94. —American Equalized Brake. 



Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A, 
B y and D, if on a mogtil or engine having three 
pairs of drivers ? 

A. The distance e, lever A y should be one-half the 
distance/. The distance g, lever B, should be equal to 
h. The hole k, lever D ) should be the same as on an 
engine having two pairs of drivers. 



290 Air-Brake Catechism, 

Q. How should the holes in the levers A, B, C, 
and D be spaced on a consolidation or engine with 
four pairs of drivers ? 

A. The distance e in lever A should be one-third of/. 
The distance g, lever J3, should be one-half of h. The 
distance i, lever C, should be equal to j. The hole k in 
lever D should be the same as with an engine having 
two or three pairs of drivers. 



AIR HOSE. 

Q. What kinds of hose are used in the air 
brake and signal systems t 

A. Usually one-inch hose is used with signal equip- 
ment and cars in passenger, mail, and express service ; 
while inch and one-quarter hose is used exclusively in 
freight service. 

Q. Is this a standard on all roads f 

A. No ; some roads use the inch and one-quarter 
hose with the brake equipment in both freight and 
passenger service. 

Q. Would there be any objection to using one- 
inch hose in freight service f 

A. The chief objection consists in the fact that the 
small hose presents a greater frictional resistance to the 
passage of air. This would be especially objectionable 
when it was desired to make a quick reduction to apply 
the brakes in quick action. 

Q. What is the object of having different hose 
couplings for the air and signal hose ? 

A. So that brakemen, when in a hurry, cannot 
couple the brake and signal hose together ; some com- 
panies paint the signal hose coupling red as a further 
aid when coupling hose. 

Q. How many cars of air are coupled up and 
operated ? 

A. Some roads regularly couple as high as 115 cars 
and operate the brakes wdth the air supplied by a nine 
and one-half inch pump. 



292 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Could this be done with a poor hose t 
A. No, since with poor liose there is often consider- 
able leakage not discernible with the naked eye. 

Q. How may porous hose be detected? 
A. By coating the outside with soapsuds. 

Q. What is the ustial life of air hose t 
A. Passenger, about two and one-half years ; freight, 
about two years. 

Q. Hoiu is air hose bought? 

A. Some on account of cheapness, some by a time 
guarantee, and others by specification, the roads being 
willing to assume the risk in the latter case if they know 
the hose to be first-class when put in service. 

Q. What is the object of the markings shown on 
the hose {Fig. 94) f 

A. It is for the purpose of obtaining a record of the 
life of the hose. The one applying the hose should cut 
off the figure representing the month, in the line headed 
by the letter A, and the figure which shows the year. 
When the hose is removed the year and month should 
also be shown by cutting off the proper numbers. 

The following specifications have been recommended 
to railroads by the Peerless Rubber Manufacturing 
Company of New York. They have been in force for 
some time on many of the large railroads throughout 
the country, and the results obtained have been such 
as to cause them to believe that better results are ob- 
tained by buying hose from specification rather than in 
the open market. 

AIR-BRAKE AND SIGNAL-HOSE SPECIFICATIONS ISSUED 

BY PEERLESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING 

COMPANY OF NEW YORK. 

All air-brake and signal hose must be soft and pliable, 



Air Hose. 293 

and not less than 4-ply. The tube to be hand made 
and so firmly joined to the canvas that it cannot be 
pulled away without breaking or splitting the tube. 
The tube, friction, coating and cover to be of the same 
quality of gum. 

All cotton duck to be used in air-brake and signal 
hose to weigh not less than from 20 oz. to 22 oz. per 
yard, 38 to 40 inches wide, to be loosely woven and 
long fibre. Duck must be frictioned on both sides, 
and, in addition to the friction, must have a heavy 
coating of gum on one side, so when made up there 
will be a distinct layer of gum between each ply of 
duck. Hose without the coating will be rejected. 




Fig. 95. 

The tube to be not less than 15-gauge thick. The 
inside diameter of freight hose must not be more than 
1^ inches nor less than 1 ^ inches. Outside diameter 
not more than 2 inches nor less than 1 7/% inches. The 
inside diameter of passenger and signal hose must not 
be more than i-^ inches nor less than 1 inch. Outside 
diameter must not be more than 1 ^ inches nor less 
than 1^ inches. Diameter to be as specified through- 
out the entire length. All short lengths to have capped 
ends. All caps must be vulcanized on, not pasted or 
cemented on. 

Each standard length of air and signal hose must be 
branded with the name of the manufacturer, and the 
year and month in which made, name of road, and a 
table of raised letters denoting the years and months 
as illustrated above. 



294 



Air-Brake Catechism 



All Air-Brake and Signal Hose must stand the 
following test. 

Friction Test. — The friction will be determined by 
the force required to unwind a section of hose i inch in 
length, the force being applied at the point of separation, 
as per sketch. With a force of 25 lbs., the separation 
mnst be uniform and regular, and when 
unwound from outside to tube, the average 
speed must not be greater than 12 inches 
in 20 minutes. 

Stretching Test. — The i-inch section of 
the tube or inner lining should then be 
taken from the piece of i-inch section used 
in the friction test, and cut at the thickest 
part of lap ; then marks 2 inches apart will 
be placed on it and it must be stretched 10 
inches from the aforesaid 2-inch marks, and 
released immediately. It will then be re- 
marked, and will be stretched 10 inches, or 
400 per cent, without breaking, to remain 
stretched 10 minutes, and to be measured 
10 minutes after the strain is removed. In 
no case must the piece show more than % -men per- 
manent set or elongation in 2 inches. Hose should be 
at least from 3 to 7 days old before testing. 

All rejected material may be returned, the shipper 
paying freight both ways. 




A FEW PRACTICAL FORMULA AND RULES 
FOR AIR-BRAKE INSPECTORS. 

(i) Braking power = T ^ 

v Cylinder value s 



(2) 

(3) 



i -inch piston travel Shoe movement for 



Total leverage inch of piston travel. 

Shoe wear Total increase of piston travel 

Shoe movement = to wear out a set of shoes, 
for i inch of 
piston travel 

ILLUSTRATION OF ABOVE FORMULA. 

Assume : 

Weight of car = 40,000 pounds ; it is to be braked at 
ninety per cent of its weight ; 10-inch cylinder used; 
shoes 1 J inches thick. 

Ninety per cent of 40,000 = 36,000 pounds. The 
cylinder value, or push on the piston, of a 10-inch 
cylinder, when the brake is set in emergency with a 
quick-action triple, is 4700 pounds. 

Substituting values in the equations : 

/ N 36,000 ta rr 

(I) ^— - ^7.66 

4700 

7.66 is the total leverage ; that is, the push of 4700 
pounds on the piston must be multiplied 7.66 times to 
give the proper braking power. 

(2) _^L^.i 3 "or-M. 

v ; 7.66 J 100 



296 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

iW of an inch is the distance that the brake shoes will 
move for each inch that the piston travels. 

/ \ I i I -5 

ii^ inches is the distance the piston travel would 
have to increase to wear out a set of shoes 1^ inches 
thick. 

To find the area of a piston : 

Multiply tlie diameter of the piston by itself and 
this product by the decimal .7854. 

Example : 

What is the area of an 8-inch piston ? 

8" X 8 = 64 sq. in. 
64 sq. in. x .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 

50.26 square inches is the area of the piston ; that is, 
the number of square inches in a circle 8 inches in 
diameter. 

To find the volume or cubical contents of a cylinder : 

Multiply the diameter of the cylinder by itself 
this product by the decimal .7854, and this product 
by the length of the cylinder. 

Example : 

What is the volume of a cylinder 8 inches in diameter 
and one foot long ? 

8" X 8 = 64 sq. in. 

64 sq. in. x .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 

50.26 sq. in. x 12 = 603.12 cu. in. 

To find the pressure at which an auxiliary and brake 
cylinder will equalize with a full service application of 



Formula and Rulks. 297 

the brake using an initial pressure of seventy pounds in 
the train line and auxiliary : 

Multiply the capacity of the auxiliary in cubic 
inches by eighty-five pounds (seventy pounds train- 
line pressure plus fifteen pounds atmospheric press- 
ure), and divide the product by the combi?ied capacity 
of the auxiliary and brake cylinder. The quotient 
will be, approximately, the pressure plus fifteen 
pounds atmospheric pressure. This is not absolutely 
correct, as it does not take into account the clearance 
in the cylinder back of the piston with the brake 
released. This usually corresponds to about 1 inch 
of piston travel. 

Example : 

Capacity of freight auxiliary reservoir - 1625 cu - in- 
capacity of 8-inch brake cylinder with 8-inch piston 
travel = 400 cu. in. 

1625 X 85 = 138,125. 138,125 - (1625 + 400) - 68 
68 lbs. — 15 = 53 lbs. 

Fifty-three pounds is the pressure obtained in the 
auxiliary and brake cylinder with the brake full set in 
service. 

The formulae given below will be found convenient 
with which to find either the proper width of a lever to 
withstand a given strain, or to ascertain the fibre strain 
on a lever. 

R = Fibre strain. 

/ = Distance from point power is applied to center of 
pin at point for which dimension or amount of fibre 
strain is desired. 

b — Equals thickness of lever. 

d — Width of lever. 

No allowance is made for the metal taken out of the 



298 Air-Brake Catechism. 

lever for the pin holes, as the removal of metal has no 
practical weakening effect, same being so close to the 
central axis. 

In general railroad air-brake practice, from 18,000 to 
20,000 is considered a safe fibre strain. 

b a- 



-\ 



6 PI 
~R~b 
Example : 

To find the fibre strain at the middle hole of a lever 
24 inches between the push-rod and outside holes, 
middle hole 12 inches from push-rod hole, width of 
lever 4.336 inches at middle hole, lever 1 inch thick, 
10-inch cylinder used, and a maximum pressure of 60 
pounds obtained in the cylinder, giving a total power 
of about 4,700 pounds acting on the piston. 

6 PI 6x 4700 x 12 _ a 

R = -,-77 K = — -> z or R = 18,000 pounds. 

bd- 1x4.336x4.336 ^ 

Example : 

Under the same conditions as the preceding ex- 
ample find the proper width of the lever at the middle 
hole, permitting of a maximum fibre strain of 18,000 
pounds. 



, I 6 PI 7 I 6 x 4700 x 12 

d = >J ~wr or d = -J — 5^ or 

^ i?^ ^J 18,000 x 1 

d = |T878" or d = 4-33 6 inches. 

Width of lever should be 4.336 inches. 

To reduce stops at different speeds to an equivalent 
stop at the same speeds, all other conditions being equal. 



Formula and Rules. 299 

Rule : Multiply the known distance by the square 
of the speed for which proportionate distance is de- 
sired, and divide the product by the square of the 
speed at which known stop was made. 

This rule is only practical with speeds which are not 
more than three miles above or below the speed for 
which proportionate stop is to be calculated. 

Example : 

If a stop at 58 miles per hour is made in 1,600 feet, 
and one at 62 miles per hour in 1,800 feet, in what dis- 
tance would each of these stops have been made at a 
speed of 60 miles per hour ? 

Square of 58 miles = 3364. 
Square of 62 miles = 3844. 
Square of 60 miles = 3600. 



1600 x 3600 

~3364~ 
1800 x 3600 

3844 



1712. 
1691. 



In the first case the stop at 60 miles per hour would 
have been made in 1,712 feet, while in the latter it 
would have taken 1,691 feet. 



APPENDIX 

UP-TO-DATE AIR BRAKE CATECHISM 



This appendix contains a description of the Improved West- 

inghouse Equipment developed for use on locomotives 

and freight cars. This new equipment is the result 

of the changed conditions of road service in which 

the trains are of much greater length than 

those at the time of the inception of the 

old standard quick-action triple valve. 

Fully describes and illustrates 

the principal parts of what 

goes to make up the new 

equipment, viz.: 

Schedule ET Locomotive Brake Equipment* H-5 Brake Valve* 
SF (independent) Brake Valve* SF Pump Governor* Dis- 
tributing Valve* B-4 Feed Valve* B-3 Reducing Valve* 
Safety Valve* K (quick service) Triple Valve* 
Compound Pump. 

By ROBERT H. BLACKALL 

ASSISTANT TO GENERAL MANAGER WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE CO. 

Fully illustrated by folding plates 
and detailed engravings 



New York : 
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 

132 Nassau Street 
1907 



Copyrighted, 1907 

BY 

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 



Preface to Twenty-first Edition. 

The issuing of the present edition of this book, Up-to- 
date Air-Brake Catechism with an appendix, shows that the 
book is filling the want it was designed to meet. 

The changed conditions of service which now prevail, 
and which consist in longer trains, cars of heavier capacity 
and locomotives with a power and weight commensurate 
with their increased duties, has made imperative some radi- 
cal changes in the air brake art. The original brake was 
designed with the idea in mind that the maximum length 
of train would be fifty cars, and the capacity of these cars 
60,000 pounds. The usual capacity is now 100,000 pounds, 
the number of cars in a train is often over 100, and the 
hauling power of the locomotive has kept pace. The result 
of these changes has been that the apparatus which has 
been in use for so many years is not adequate to handle, 
with the desired efficiency, the long and heavy trains of 
to-day. 

To meet these conditions the Westinghouse Air Brake 
Company has developed an engine and car equipment by 
the use of which even better results are obtained with the 
long and heavy trains than could be obtained with the older 
equipment and the shorter trains. 

The appendix to this book has been written w T ith a 
view of explaining the operation of this new equipment 
with which it will be necessary for railroad employees 
to become familiar to avail themselves of the many advan- 
tages which it makes possible. 

The author wishes to take this opportunity to again 
thank the railroad public for their continued support which 
has been very gratifying to him, 

February, 1907. Robert H. Blackall. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS (appendix) 



SCHEDULE ET 

Brake Valves (automatic and independent) 

Distributing Valve 

Safety Valve .... 

Feed Valves, B-4 and B-3 

SF-4 (excess-pressure) Pump Governor 

Defects of ET Equipment 
K Triple Valve (quick-service) . 
8^-Inch Cross-Compound Pump . 



307-349 
314-326 

327-336 
337-33S 
339-341 
342-345 
346-349 

350-357 
358-367 



List of Illustrations of Westinghouse 
Improved Equipment (Appendix). 

PAGE 

Improved Locomotive and Tender Equipment 

(Schedule ET). 

Piping Diagram of ET Equipment 

Distributing Valve and Double-Chamber Re- 
servoir, Pipe Connections 

Distributing Valve and Double-Chamber Re- 
servoir, Sectional Reservoir 

Diagrammatic View .... 

Distributing Valve— Release Position— Auto- 
matic or Independent . . 

Distributing Valve— Independent Applica- 
tion ....... 

Distributing Valve — Independent Lap . 

Distributing Valve — Automatic Service Posi- 
tion 

Distributing Valve — Service Lap . 

Distributing Valve — Emergency Application. 

Distributing Valve — Emergency Lap 

Distributing Valve — Independent Release 
after Brake has been applied automatic- 
ally 

Fig. 109. Graduating Valve, Equalizing Slide Valve 
and Slide- Valve Seat of the Distributing 
Valve 

Distributing Valve showing Connections 

Safety Valve 

Type H Brake Valve 

Type H Brake Valve, Section of Valve and 
Plan of Seat 



Plate XIII. 


Fig. 

Fig. 


97. 
98. 


Fig. 


99- 


Fig. 
Fig. 


100. 

IOI. 


Fig. 


102. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


103. 
104. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 



Fig. 


no. 


Fig. 


in. 


Fig. 


112. 


Fig. 


113. 



List of Illustrations (Appendix). 



Fig. 114. Type H Brake Valve, showing the different 

Positions of the Handle . 
Fig. 115. Type H Brake Valve, Horizontal and Vertical 

Sections .... 
Fig. 116. Exterior View of SF (independent) Brake 

Valve . . . . . 

Fig. 117. SF Brake Valve, Shaded Vertical and Hori- 
zontal Section . 
Fig. 118. SF Brake Valve, Horizontal and Vertical 
Line Section and Plan of Rotary 

Fig. 119. B-4 Feed Valve 

Fig. 120. SF-4 (excess-pressure) Pump Governor 
Plate XIV. Views of the K Type (quick-service) Triple 
Valve. 
K Triple Valve — Exterior View 
K Triple Valve— Cross Section 
K Triple Valve, Graduating Valve, 

Valve, Bush 

K Triple Valve — Full Release Position . 
K Triple Valve— Service Position . 
K Triple Valve— Service Lap Position . 
K Triple Valve— Retarded Release Position 
K Triple Valve— Emergency Position . 
Cross-Compound Pump— Exterior View 
Cross-Compound Pump, Up-Stroke of High-Pres- 
sure Side 

Cross-Compound Pump, Down-Stroke of High 
Pressure Side ..... 



Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 
Fig. 129. 
Fig. 130. 

Fig. 131. 



121. 
122. 
123. 

124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 



Slide 



339 

343 



359 



361 
363 



NOTICE. 



Figures 97 to 106 inclusive will be found on 
Folding Plate XIII. 



Figures 107 to 118 inclusive will be found on 
Folding Plate XIII continued. 



Figures 121 to 128 inclusive will be found on 
Folding Plate XIV. 



These three folding plates will be found in 

the pocket on the inside back cover 

of this book. 



ET LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE 
EQUIPMENT. 

All cuts referred to in this chapter will be found on 
Plate XIII. 

Q. What does the symbol ET designate f 
A. It designates the Westinghouse new improved 
engine and tender, or locomotive, brake equipment, 
the letters ET being the initals of the words " En- 
gine " and " Tender." 

Q. In what respect is the ET locomotive equip- 
ment an improvement over the standard brake f 

A. In that it consists of fewer parts; that is, it 
combines practically in one mechanism the present com- 
bined-automatic and straight-air brake ; and it possesses 
many improved features in operation. It is easier to 
understand and to operate and is cheaper to maintain 
than the present type of combined-automatic and 
straight-air brake. 

Q. What parts of the present combined-auto- 
matic and straight-air brake are displaced by the 
ET brake? 

A. All triple valves, all auxiliary reservoirs, all 
pressure retaining valves, all high-speed reducing valves, 
one brake-pipe feed valve, the reversing cock, and 
all double-check valves. 

Q. What does Fig. 97 represent ? 
A. It represents all the parts of the ET equipment, 
and shows the method of piping them together. 



308 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What are the principal parts of the ET 
equipment ? 

A. Referring to Fig. 97, Plate XIII, it will be seen that 
they are : an air pump, a main reservoir, an automatic 
brake valve, an independent brake valve, a duplex pump 
governor, a double cut-out cock, a distributing valve, a 
brake-pipe feed valve, and the necessary piping, cut-out 
cocks, brake cylinders, brake-pipe strainers, angle cocks, 
and pressure gauges. 

Q. Can the ET equipment be used in all kinds 
of service, such as high-speed passenger, in freight, 
and in switching without change or modification of 
its parts ? 

A. Yes ; it is an equipment suitable for any kind of 
engine and train service, and engines equipped with it 
may be used in the different kinds of service without 
change or modification of its parts. 

Q. Why is this improved equipment necessary ? 

A. Because of the heavier weight of all kinds of 
modern locomotives, greater weight and speed of pas- 
senger trains, greater length of freight trains, there is 
need of a more positive and more flexible brake than 
the present standard to control their motion. There 
is also need of a means of graduating at will both the 
application and the release of the locomotive brake as 
well as releasing the brakes simultaneously with, or 
independently of, the train brakes ; this may be done 
with the ET brake. 

Q. Can shorter and smoother stops be made with 
trains that are hauled by locomotives equipped with 
this brake than can be made with those hauled by 
locomotives having the older type t 

A. Yes ; considerably shorter and smoother stops 



ET Locomotive Brake Equipment. 309 

can be made. Shorter because of the maintaining fea- 
ture of the distributing valve and smoother because of 
the independent brake valve and the graduated release 
feature in connection with the automatic brake valve. 
It also gives 20 per cent, more braking power in an 
emergency application. 

Q. What other special advantage is obtained by 
the tise oj this equipment f 

A. Brakes on long freight trains may be released at 
slow speeds with less danger of the train being broken 
in two. 

Q, What is the distinguishing valve of the ET 
equipment f 

A. The distributing valve. 

Q. No auxiliaries being used with the ET 
brake, where is the air taken from that is used in 
the brake cylinders to apply the brakes t 

A. From the main reservoir. 

Q. ±s this true both when an automatic, and 
when an independent application of the brakes is 
made f 

A. Yes ; with either kind of application, the air 
used in the brake cylinders is taken from the main 
reservoir, the pressure first being reduced by a reducing 
valve. 

Q. How are the brakes operated independently 
of the train brakes f 

A. By the use of the independent brake valve. 

Q. How are the engine and train brakes oper- 
ated simultaneously ? 

A. By the use of the automatic brake valve. 



310 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Referring to Fig. 97, what is the purpose of 
the main reservoir cut-out cock ? 

A. When necessary to remove valves to make re- 
pairs to any part of the equipment after it is charged, 
this cock may be closed to prevent loss of main re- 
servoir air. 

Q. Why is it that but one brake-pipe feed valve 
is used with this equipment f 

A. Because the feed valve used has an improved 
regulating attachment by means of which it can readily 
be changed from one brake-pipe pressure to another. 

Q. What is this brake-pipe feed valve called? 
A. The B\ feed valve. 

Q. In what respect does the pump governor used 
with this equipment differ from that used with the 
older ? 

A. In that it automatically adjusts the excess pres- 
sure whenever the adjustment of the feed valve is 
changed from one brake pipe pressure to another. 

Q. By what name is this new governor known ? 
A. It is designated the SF 4, or excess pressure, 
governor. 

Q. What is the purpose of the double cock under 
the automatic brake valve ? 

A. Its purpose is to enable the engineers of second, 
or helping, locomotives when double heading to cut out 
this brake valve, and to open the exhaust port of the 
distributing valve, to the atmosphere, through the cut- 
out cock to the brake valve so that the leading engineer 
can operate the brakes on those engines. When the 
small port in the double cut-out cock is opened the 
brake pipe port is closed and vice versa. 



ET Locomotive Brake Equipment. 311 

Q. Will turning the double cock only, enable the 
leading engineer to operate the brakes on the other 
locomotives f 

A. No ; the engineer of the second engine must also 
place the handle of his automatic brake valve in lap 
position. 

Q. Why is this necessary f 

A. Because the automatic brake valve, in this posi- 
tion only, opens the distributing valve exhaust port 
connection to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is the purpose of the independent 
brake valve ? 

A. It enables the engineer to operate the locomotive 
brakes in the same manner that he does now with the 
straight-air brake, and it also enables him, when the 
automatic brake is applied, to regulate the cylinder 
pressure on the locomotive, or to release entirely the 
locomotive brakes, without affecting the train brakes. 

Q. When the brakes have been applied by the 
use of the automatic brake valve on the lead engine, 
can the helper engineer release the brakes on his 
engine ? 

A. Yes ; by placing the independent brake valve in 
release position. He can also reapply them if desired. 

Q. Should the engineer after making an auto- 
matic application, entirely release the air from the 
brake cylinders by the use of the independent brake 
valve, could he again apply them independently of 
the automatic brake f 

A. Yes. 

Q. How f 



312 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. By moving the handle of the independent brake 
valve to application position, admitting the desired 
pressure, and then moving it back to running position. 
It could be returned to lap position, but if this were 
done, the brakes on the locomotive would not release 
when the automatic brake valve handle was placed in 
running position. 

Q. Has the engineer the means of knowing how 
much pressure is being put into the locomotive 
brake cylinder at all times ? 

A. Yes ; he has a single-pointer brake-cylinder air 
gauge in the cab which indicates the pressure. 

Q. What is the maximum pressure that can be 
obtained in the brake cylinder with the independent 
brake valve? 

A. Forty-five pounds. 

Q. How is the independent brake pressure reg- 
ulated ? 

A. By means of the pressure reducing valve, Fig. 97. 

Q. Does this pressure reducing valve serve the 
independent brake only ? 

A. No ; it also does duty for the train air signal 
when the locomotive is equipped with the signal 

apparatus. 

Q. What is the purpose of the combined strainer 
and check valve used in the signal pipe t 

A. It prevents dirt and other foreign matter from 
getting to the check valve, causing it to leak, and 
the check valve prevents back flow of air from the 
signal pipe to the independent brake valve while the 
latter is being used. 



ET Locomotive Brake Equipment. 313 

Q. If a pump should break down on the second 
engine, and inasmuch as the air for braking 
Purposes is taken from the main reservoir, could 
the brakes be operated on this engine f 

A. Yes ; the engineer could charge the main reser- 
voir by placing the brake-valve handle in release position 
and open the cut-out cock under the brake-valve so that 
the air will flow from the brake-pipe to the reservoir and 
charge same after which the cut-out should be closed. 
This should only be done when the train is at rest ; 
otherwise it might interfere with the handling of the 
brakes by the " lead " engineer. 

Owing to the fact that a dead engine is very light, 
due to the fire having been dumped and the water 
drained off, it is not good practice to use the brake on 
the engine on account of the liability of wheel sliding. 

Where desired, a few extra parts are furnished by 
means of which the main reservoir can be charged 
through a by-pass containing a non-return check, a 
strainer, a cut-out cock and a diaphragm which necessi- 
tates a flow of air from the brake-pipe at a speed such 
that the air taken from it would ■ not act to apply the 
train brakes while the main reservoir was charging. 
This is used to some extent on roads where the grades 
are such that it is not safe to take an engine down in a 
train without a brake. 



BRAKE VALVES. 

H 5 AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. How many positions has the H 5 automatic 
brake valve handle ? 
A. Six. 

Q. Name them. 

A. They are release, running, holding (see Fig. 114),. 
lap, service application, and emergency application 
positions. 

Q. What is the purpose of each f 

A. With the exception of release and locomotive 
brake holding, they are the same as the corresponding 
positions on the G6 brake valve which have already 
been described in the first of the book. 

In release position the train brakes can be released 
but not the locomotive brakes, and moving the handle 
back and forth between driver brake holding and run- 
ning, or between release and running position, the 
locomotive brakes can be graduated off after the train 
brakes are released or while they are releasing. Loco- 
motive brake holding position, as its name implies, is 
for the purpose of holding these brakes applied until it 
is desired to release them. In this position the feed 
valve controls brake pipe pressure. 

Q. What are the advantages of holding position ? 



H 5 Brake Valve. 315 

A. When releasing brakes on long freight trains the 
slack may be held bunched, thus preventing a break-in- 
two, especially when release is made at slow speed. 
This may also be done by leaving the brake-valve han- 
dle in release position ; the handle is moved to holding 
position to advoid overcharging. With passenger trains, 
smoother and more accurate stops can be made, be- 
cause train brakes may be released just before stop- 
ping, and locomotive brakes graduated off afterward. 

Q. When the handle of the H5 brake valve is 
placed in emergency position is any additional brak- 
ing power obtained in the locomotive brake cylin- 
ders t 

A. Yes ; about 20 per cent. 

Q. Explain this. 

A. When the handle is placed in emergency position, 
the pressure in the brake-valve equalizing reservoir is 
connected with the application chamber of the distribu- 
ting valve, thus increasing the pressure therein. 

Q. What are the advantages of this increased 
pressure ? 

A. It helps to make a shorter stop, and effectually 
prevents possibility of the engine breaking away from 
the train in emergency applications. 

Q. With what type of equipment is this brake 
valve (Fig. 112) used? 

A. With the E T engine and tender brake equip- 
ment. 

Q. Is its principle of operation amy different from 
that of the G-6 brake valve, already described? 
A. No, it is designed on practically the same lines. 

Q. In ivhat particulars does it differ from the G-6 
brake valve? 



316 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. First, in that it lias a permanent base to which 
it is bolted, rendering it unnecessary to disturb any 
pipe joints whenever it is necessary to remove it for 
cleaning and repairs ; second, in that it has, in addi- 
tion to the same positions for the handle, one more 
position known as the holding in which the locomo- 
tive brakes are held applied while the train brakes 
are releasing ; third, that the service exhaust is made 
at the center of the rotary instead of the side ; fourth, 
that in release position the engine and tender brakes 
are held applied ; fifth, in emergency application posi- 
tion it connects the equalizing reservoir with the appli- 
cation chamber of the distributing valve, thus increas- 
ing the pressure in the latter and hence in the brake 
cylinders, about twenty per cent ; sixth, it has a feed 
valve pipe connection ; seventh, a double heading pipe 
connection. 

Q. What is Fig. 112? 

A. It is a view of the exterior of the brake valve. 

Q. What does Fig. 114 represent? 

A. It represents the top of the brake valve, and 
shows the different positions of the handle for oper- 
ating the valve. 

Q. What do Figs. 113 and 115 show? 
A. Figs. 113 and 115 are views showing all the 
parts with their numbers and names. 

Q. Name the parts. 

A. They are as follows : 2, Bottom Case ; 3, Ro- 
tary Valve ; 4, Top Case ; 5, Pipe Bracket ; 6, Rotary 
Valve; 7, Rotary Valve Key; 8, Key Washer; 9, 
Handle ; 10, Handle Latch Spring ; 11, Handle Latch ; 
12, Handle Latch Screw ; 13, Handle Nut ; 14, Handle 
Lock Nut; 15, Equalizing Piston; 16, Equalizing Pis- 
ton Packing Ring ; 17, Valve Seat Upper Gasket ; 18, 



H 5 Brake Valve. 317 

Valve Seat Lower Gasket ; 19, Pipe Bracket Gasket ; 
20, Small Union Nut; 21, Brake Valve Tee; 22, Small 
Union Swivel ; 23, Large Union Nut ; 24, Large Union 
Swivel; 25, Bracket Stud; 26, Bracket Stud Nut; 27, 
Bolt and Nut; 28, Cap Screw; 29, Oil Plug; 30, Ro- 
tary Valve Spring. 

Q. In Fig. 115 three distinct vieivs are given. 
Name them. 

A. That at the top is a section showing the rotary 
valve seat and the arrangement of the ports in it; 
that at the left is a drawing of the rotary valve, and 
shows the arrangement of the ports and cavities in 
it; the lower cut is a longitudinal section through the 
body of the whole brake valve showing the interior 
construction, the equalizing discharge piston, and the 
service exhaust. In this drawing the pipe connections 
are also shown. 

Q. Explain the pipe connections of the H brake 
valve. 

A. Referring to the piping diagram, Fig. 97, they 
are as follows : Main reservoir pipe ; feed valve-pipe ; 
brake pipe ; independent brake valve and application 
chamber ; double heading ; excess pressure pump gov- 
ernor ; and one to the air gauge and equalizing reser- 
voir connections. 

Q. Are these connections made to the brake valve 
proper or to its base or pipe bracket? 

A. They are made to the pipe bracket. 

Q. Explain the operation of the H brake valve. 

A. Release Position: In this position the large 
port a of the rotary is brought into full register with 
the large port b (Figs. 113 and 115) leading to the 
circular cavity that extends around under the rotary 
seat to port c, which leads directly into the brake pipe, 



3*8 Air-Brake Catechism. 

thus providing a direct passage for main reservoir 
air into the brake pipe. In this position the port I 
which leads from the application chamber through the 
independent brake valve to the rotary seat is closed so 
that the application chamber air cannot escape, nor 
the engine and tender brakes release; the warning port 
r is open to the atmosphere. Ports j in the rotary 
and port g in the seat, leading to chamber D, are in 
register so that air can flow freely to this chamber 
and the equalizing reservoirs connected with it. Port 
s in the rotary and port p in the seat are in communi- 
cation so that main reservoir air can flow to the ex- 
cess pressure top of the pump governor. 

Running Position: In this position port a in the 
rotary is blanked by the rotary seat and air at feed 
valve pressure, then enters the brake valve at port d 
in the rotary seat, leading from the feed valve, passes 
through cavity / in the rotary valve face into port b 
around through the cavity reaching to port c and 
thence to the brake pipe. In this position, brake pipe 
air goes to chamber D and the equalizing reservoir 
through port c in the rotary seat, cavity k in the ro- 
tary, and port g. 

In this position port I in the seat is in register with 
port and passage h in the rotary, so that air from the 
application chamber of the distributing valve can 
escape to the atmosphere, and release the engine and 
tender brakes. Main reservoir pressure continues to 
reach the low-pressure governor head through port s 
in the rotary, port p in the seat, and a suitable pipe 
connection. 

Holding Position: Air from the feed valve pipe 
flows to the brake pipe through the same ports as in 
running position, but the port I is blanked so that the 
air cannot escape from the application chamber and 
the brakes on the engine and tender remain applied 
and the feed valve controls brake pipe pressure. The 



H 5 Brake Valve. 319 

same connection to the governor still exists as in run- 
ning position. 

Lap Position: All ports in the brake valve are 
lapped except port u, leading from the double heading 
pipe, which is then in register with port and passage 
h leading to the central exhaust port EX, also to the 
exhaust port, controlled by the slide valve in the dis- 
tributing valve. The high-pressure governor head 
now controls the pump. 

Service Application Position: Port e, the prelim- 
inary exhaust port leading from chamber D and the 
equalizing reservoir, is in register with port and pas- 
sage h in the rotary leading into the exhaust EX, thus 
permitting the pressure above the equalizing dis- 
charge piston and valve 15 to reduce, and the latter to 
rise and discharge brake pipe air to the atmosphere. 
When the brake pipe pressure below the equalizing 
discharge piston reduces to an amount slightly below 
that remaining in chamber D and the equalizing reser- 
voir it will close the service exhaust and prevent fur- 
ther reduction in brake pipe pressure. The opera- 
tion of the H brake valve in service applications is 
precisely the same as that of the Gr-6 brake valve al- 
ready described. 

Emergency Position: The large cavity x in the 
rotary, which leads to the emergency exhaust port 
EX, and the large brake pipe port c are in register, so 
that brake pipe air has a free escape to the atmo- 
sphere, thus providing for the quick reduction of 
brake pipe pressure. At the same time the L shaped 
cavity n in the face of the rotary connects port g, 
leading from the chamber D and the equalizing reser- 
voir, with port I leading to the application chamber of 
the distributing valve. This augments the maximum 
pressure in this chamber about 20 per cent in an emer- 
gency application of the brake. Port j in the rotary 
if desired can be made to register with a small port 



320 Air-Brake Catechism. 

leading to the sand valve so that the sanding device is 
automatically put into operation when the brake valve 
handle is placed in emergency position. 

Q. For what purpose is the plug 29? 

A. This is an oil plug that provides a convenient 
means of oiling the rotary valve. Whenever the ro- 
tary begins to show signs of working hard, this plug 
may be removed and valve oil poured in until it ap- 
pears at the level of the hole, when the plug should be 
screwed back. It should be borne in mind, however, 
that there should be no air pressure on the rotary 
when this plug is removed. 

Q. W here does the oil go that is thus poured into 
the rotary? 

A. It fills up the small annular groove in the body 
4, which surrounds the rotary and its seat at their line 
of meeting. 

Q. How does this oil get upon the rotary seat? 

A. When the rotary is under pressure the oil in 
the annular groove is also under pressure, and as the 
rotary is turned in operating the brake, the oil is 
worked in between the rotary and its seat in a thin 
film, keeping it nicely lubricated. 

Q. Aside from lubricating the rotary and its seat, 
does the oil have any other effect on the working of 
the valve? 

A. Yes, it tends to keep the rotary from leaking. 

Q. When it is desired to remove the brake valve 
for repairs, what is necessary to do? 

A. Unscrew the bolts and nuts and lift the valve 
off its base. No pipe connections need to be dis- 
turbed. 



SF (or Independent) Brake Valve. 321 

Q. After removal to take the valve apart, what is 
necessary? 

A. Unscrew the cap screws. 

Q. What is the purpose of the small plug, with the 
side outlet in it, that is screwed in the service exhaust 
opening? 

A. This small plug is provided with the side out- 
let to change the direction of the exhaust and prevent 
the escaping air from blowing on to the feet of the 
engineman. 



THE INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. What is represented in Figs. 116, 117, and 
118? 

A. The independent brake valve, Fig. 116 being 
an exterior view, Fig. 117 a sectional view, showing 
the rotary seat with its ports and also the arrange- 
ment of the interior parts. Fig. 118 shows the differ- 
ent positions of the brake valve handle, a plan of the 
rotary valve and an interior view of all its parts. 

Q. What are the names of the parts of the inde- 
pendent brake valve as numbered on Fig. 118? 

A. 2, Rotary Valve Seat; 3, Valve Body; 4, Pipe 
Bracket; 5, Rotary Valve; 6, Rotary Valve Key; 7, 
Rotary Valve Spring; 8, Key Washer; 9, Return 
Spring ; 10, Return Spring Casing ; 11, Casing Screw ; 
12, Return Spring Clutch; 13, Cover; 14, Cover 
Screw; 15, Handle; 16, Handle Nut; 17, Latch 
Spring; 18, Latch; 19, Latch Screw; 20, Oil Plug; 21, 
Upper Gasket; 22, Lower Gasket; 23, Bracket Stud; 
24, Bracket Stud Nut; 25, Bolt and Nut;_26, Cap 
Screw. 



322 Air-Bra kk Catechism. 

Q. How is this valve connected up with respect to 
piping? 

A. As shown in the piping diagram, Fig. 97, Plate 
XIII., it has one pipe connection to the automatic 
brake valve, one to the application chamber of the 
distributing valve, and one to the air supply. 

Q. Does it have these pipe connections made direct 
to the brake valve or are they made to a permanent 
base the same as tcith the automatic brake valve? 

A. The pipes are directly connected to a bracket 
and it is not necessary to disturb pipe joints to re- 
move the operative parts of the valve. 

Q. Why is the independent brake valve supplied 
in addition to the automatic brake valve ivith the ET 
equipment? 

A. So that the locomotive brakes, if desired, may 
be operated independently of the automatic brakes 
both on the engine and on the train at all times. 

Q. Name the different positions for the brake 
valve handle. 

A. They are release, running, lap, and service po- 
sitions. 

Q. Explain the different positions of the Inde- 
pendent Brake Valve {Fig, 118) ? 

A. The position at the left is release ; this can be 
used regardless of the position of the automatic brake 
valve handle to obtain an independent release. If the 
hand is removed from the handle when in this position 
the spring automatically returns it to running position. 

Running position is the normal position when the 
valve is not in use. If the automatic brake valve is in 
running position the brakes on the locomotive can be 
released by placing the Independent Brake Valve han- 
dle in running position. It is necessary for the handle 



SF (or Independent) Brake Valve. 323 

to be in this position for the brakes on the locomotive 
to release when the handle of the automatic brake valve 
is placed in running position. 

Lap position ; in this position all ports are closed. 

Service position ; the use of this position permits air 
pressure to flow to the application chamber of the dis- 
tributing valve, thus causing the brakes to apply on the 
locomotive. Different degrees of speed can be obtained 
in the application of the brakes depending upon whether 
or not the handle is moved to the extreme service 
position or merely close to the extreme travel of the 
valve. 

Q. When the handle is in release position, how are 
the brakes released? 

A. When the handle is in release position port d. 
Fig. 118, leading to the application chamber of the 
distributing valve is open to the atmosphere through 
exhaust port g in the rotary and central exhaust port 
h in the seat, so that the air can escape from the appli- 
cation chamber thus permitting the brakes to release. 

Q. When the handle is placed in release position, 
will it remain there if the hand is removed? 

A. No, it will be returned automatically to run- 
ning position by return spring g. 

Q. Where should the handle be carried ivhen the 
independent valve is not in use? 
A. Always in running position. 

Q. What is the relation of the ports in running po- 
sition? 

A. In running position port d and port c in the ro- 
tary seat are in communication through passage / in 
the rotary, so that air from the application chamber 
may pass through the independent brake valve to the 
automatic brake valve, where it can escape to the at- 



324 Air-Brake Catechism. 

mosphere, when the handle of the latter is in running 
position. 

Q. Why are ports d, c, and passage f so arranged? 

A. In order to enable the engineer, whenever oper- 
ating the automatic brake, to hold the locomotive 
brake applied when releasing the automatic brakes; 
that is, to enable him to control the escape of air from 
the application chamber when releasing. 

Q. Hoiv are the brakes applied independently? 
A. By moving the handle to service position and 
admitting air to the application chamber. 

Q. How are the ports arranged in service posi- 
tion? 

A. Supply port b and service port d are connected 
by the circular cavity e and air can flow from the sup- 
ply direct to the application chamber. 

Q. What is lap position for? 
A. To blank all ports when the brakes have been 
applied with the desired degree of force. 

Q. What is the maximum brake cylinder pressure 
obtainable with the independent brake valve? 

A. Forty-five pounds. 

Q. Why is this? 

A. Because the air that comes from the main res- 
ervoir to the independent brake valve must first pass 
through a pressure-reducing valve, adjusted at 45 
pounds ; this valve is located in the supply pipe con- 
nection at a point before it reaches the independent 
valve. 

Q. Trace the air through the independent brake 
valve? 

A. Air from the main reservoir, reduced in pres- 
sure to 45 pounds, enters the brake valve, at the sup- 



SF (or Independent) Brake Valve. 325 

ply connection, Fig. 118, passes up through port b in 
the seat to the circular cavity e in the face of the 
rotary and through the port at the left end of this 
oavity to the top of the rotary. There is always inde- 
pendent brake valve pressure, 45 pounds, on top of the 
rotary with the handle of the brake valve in any one 
of its positions. With the handle in service position, 
port b and port d are connected by the cavity e and air 
can flow into application chamber pipe to the applica- 
tion chamber of the distributing valve to apply the 
brakes. With the handle in lap position communica- 
tion between the various ports is cut off and air can- 
not flow in any direction through the valve. With the 
handle in running position, the passage / on the ro- 
tary, between the top and the face, connects port d 
from the distributing valve and port c, the latter lead- 
ing to the automatic brake valve, so that when the 
handles of both valves are in running position the air 
may escape from the application chamber to the atmo- 
sphere and release the brakes. With the handle in 
release position, cavity g in the rotary connects port d 
with the central exhaust port h leading to the atmo- 
sphere. 

Q. When is it necessary to use the release position 
of the independent brake valve in order to release the 
locomotive brakes or reduce the brake cylinder pres- 
sure? 

A. Only when the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is not in running position. 

Q. If it is desired to remove the brake valve for 
cleaning or repairs what is it necessary to do? 

A. Unscrew the nuts from bolts 25 and take the 
valve off its base. 

Q. How is the valve taken apart to get at the in- 
terior parts? 



326 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Unscrew the cap screw 26, the cover screws 14, 
and the nut 16, and all parts of the valve may be sep- 
arated. 

Q. What is the function of the spring 7? 

A. It keeps the key washer 8 and the rotary valve 
key 6 up from the rotary and makes the washer press 
against the valve body 31, thus preventing leakage by 
the rotary valve key when the pump is first started. 
It also serves to hold the rotary on its seat when there 
is no pressure and thus prevents dirt from getting on 
the valve seat. 

Q. With the independent brake valve can the lo- 
comotive brakes be applied and released under any 
and all conditions of service? 

A. Yes, they can be controlled perfectly with the 
independent brake valve under all conditions of ser- 
vice. 

Q. When the engine is standing alone on ash pits, 
turntables, or sidings and when doing ivork about the 
engine, should the independent brake valve be applied 
and left applied? 

A. Yes, this practice should be followed at all 
such times. 

Q. Why is it important to do this? 

A. To avoid possibility of the locomotive moving 
when not desired, as from a leaky throttle or other 
cause. 



THE DISTRIBUTING VALVE. 

Q. What do Figs, 98 and 99 represent ? 

A. They represent the distributing valve and reser- 
voir, showing its general appearance, pipe connections, 
and also the divided reservoir, with its pressure cham- 
ber and application chamber. 

Q. Name the pipe connections to the distributing 
valve, and describe them. 

A. Referring to Fig. 98 the connection marked 
"SUP" is the supply pipe connection. The supply 
pipe connects the main reservoir pipe and the dis- 
tributing valve. The connection marked " ABV" 
is the double heading pipe, and connects the exhaust 
port through the equalizing slide valve of the distrib- 
uting valve with the double cut-out cock and the auto- 
matic brake valve. The lower connection marked 
U SBV" connects the distributing valve and the inde- 
pendent brake valve, and extends through the inde- 
pendent brake valve to the automatic brake valve. 

Referring to Fig. 99, the upper connection is the one 
that connects the distributing valve to the brake cylin- 
ders. The lower connection is the one between the 
brake pipe and the distributing valve. 

Q What is the junction oj the distributing 
valve ? 

A. To admit air to, and to exhaust it from, all the 
brake cylinders on the locomotive, both in automatic 
and in independent applications, and to maintain auto- 
matically the desired cylinder pressure regardless of 
cylinder leakage and variation in piston travel. 



328 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What are the purposes of the stop cocks in 
the brake cylinder pipe ? 

A. In case it is desired to cut out any one or all of 
the brakes for any cause, such as burst hose or broken 
downbrake rigging, they may be closed to prevent the 
brakes from applying. 

Q. Should the hose burst either in front of the 
engine-truck brake or of the tender-brake cylin- 
der during a brake application, would the other 
brakes release ? 

A. No. 

Q. Why is this ? 

A. Because of the special choke fittings (Fig. 97) 
located between the stop cocks and the brake cylinder, 
which prevent air from passing through them faster 
than the distributing valve can supply it. 

Q. What is the standard brake pipe pressure 
carried with the FT brake ? 

A. For the ordinary brake 70 pounds ; for the high- 
speed brake no pounds ; and for the high-pressure con- 
trol 90 pounds. 

Q. What does Fig, no represent ? 
A. It is a sectional drawing showing the interior of 
the distributing valve as actually constructed. 

Q. Referring to Figs. 99 and no, what are the 
names of the parts as numbered f 

A. The proper names of the different parts of the 
distributing valve are as follows : 2, Body ; 3, Application 
Valve Cover ; 4, Cover Screw ; 5, Application Valve ; 
6, Application Valve Spring ; 7, Application Cylinder 
Cover ; 8, Cylinder Cover-Bolt and Nut ; 9, Cylinder 
Cover Gasket; 10, Application Piston; n, Piston 
Follower ; 12, Packing Leather Expander ; 13, Packing 



Distributing Valve. 329 

Leather ; 14, Application Piston Nut ; 15, Application 
Piston Packing Ring; 16, .Exhaust Valve; 17, Ex- 
haust Valve Spring : 18, Application Valve Pin ; 19, 
Graduating Stem ; 20, Graduating Spring ; 21, Grad- 
uating Stem Nut ; 22, Upper Cap Nut ; 23, Equalizing 
Cylinder Cap ; 24, Cylinder Cap Bolt and Nut ; 25, 
Cylinder Cap Gasket ; 26, Equalizing Piston ; 27, 
Equalizing-Piston Packing Ring ; 28, Graduating 
Valve ; 29, Graduating-Valve Spring ; 31, Equalizing 
Slide Valve ; 32, Equalizing Slide- Valve Spring ; 33, 
Lower Cap Nut ; 34, Safety Valve ; 35, Double Cham- 
ber Reservoir ; 36, Reservoir Stud and Nut ; 2>7) Reser- 
voir Drain Plug ; 38, Distributing- Valve Drain Plug ; 
39, Application- Valve Cover Gasket ; 40, Application- 
Piston Cotter ; 41, Distributing Valve Gasket. 

Q What do Figs. 100 to 108 inclusive represent ? 

A. They are diagrammatic drawings that represent 
the distributing valve in all of its different operative 
positions. 

Q. Name these positions. 

A. They are Fig. 101, Release, Automatic or Inde- 
pendent ; Fig. 102, Independent Application ; Fig. 103, 
Independent Lap ; Fig. 104, Automatic Service ; Fig. 
105, Service Lap ; Fig. 106, Emergency ; Fig. 107, 
Emergency Lap ; Fig. 108, Release Position, when 
locomotive brake is released by independent brake-valve 
after an application by brake pipe reduction. 

Q What is represented in Fig. 109 ? 

A. Fig. 109 represents the plan of the graduating 
valve, shows two views of the slide valve, face and plan, 
and a plan of the slide valve seat. 

These views show the arrangement of ports as they 
actually are constructed, and are not diagrammatic 
drawings. 



330 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How does the distributing valve charge up 
the pressure chamber of the double reservoir? 

A. In precisely the same manner that a triple valve 
charges an auxiliary reservoir ; that is, referring to Fig. 
ioo, brake pipe air enters the distributing valve at BP, fills 
chamber p, and flows through the small feed grooves at 
the top of piston 26 to the slide valve side of this 
piston, and thence to the pressure chamber through port 
o until the pressure in this chamber is equal to that in 
chamber/* and the brake pipe. 

Q. Then the pressure in the pressure chamber, 
when fully charged, is equal on both sides of 
piston 26? 

A. Yes. 

INDEPENDENT APPLICATION. 

Q. What takes place in the distributing valve 
when the handle of the independent brake valve is 
placed in service position ? 

A. As shown in Fig. 102, air is admitted direct from 
this valve to the application chamber, forming a pressure 
therein which causes the application piston 10, to move 
forward. This in turn moves the brake cylinder ex- 
haust valve 16, and the application valve 5, over until 
the former closes the brake cylinder exhaust port and 
the latter uncovers port b, leading to the brake cylinders. 
When port b is uncovered, main reservoir air from 
chamber a is free to flow to the brake cylinders. 

Q. After the pressure in the brake cylinders be- 
comes slightly greater than that in the application 
chamber what takes placet 

A. The application piston 10 and the valves move 
to the independent lap position, as shown in Fig. 103. 
To move piston 10 to lap the spring 20 aids the cylinder 
pressure. 



Distributing Valvk. 33 r 

Q. How is this valve made to assume this posi- 
tion t 

A. When the pressure in chamber b is slightly 
greater than that in chamber g, piston 10 and applica- 
tion valve 5 move back until valve 5 laps port b, where 
further flow of main reservoir air to the brake cylinder 
is cut off, and the brake remains applied with a pressure 
equal to or slightly in excess of that in the application 
chamber connected with chamber g. 

Q. Suppose that after application valve 5 moves 
to lap position leakage of air from the brake cylin- 
ders should cause the pressure therein to fall, what 
would occur ? 

A. As soon as the pressure in chamber b fell slightly 
below that in chamber g, the application piston 10 
would be forced to the right and application valve 5 
would open port b and admit main reservoir air again to 
supply the leakage and maintain the brake cylinder 
pressure practically equal to that in the application 
chamber and chamber g. 

Q. How are the brakes released after an inde- 
pendent application ? 

A. By placing the handle of the independent brake 
valve in running position, when the air in the applica- 
tion chamber will escape to the atmosphere ; the pres- 
sure in chamber b will then force the application piston 
and application valve to release position, as shown in 
Fig. 10 1, and brake cylindei air will then escape to the 
atmosphere through the exhaust ports in exhaust valve 
16, and in the body of the distributing valve. 

Q. Where must the handle of the automatic 
brake valve be in order that the air may escape from 
the application chamber when the handle of the in- 
dependent brake valve is in running position ? 



332 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. In running position. 

Q. Does the equalizing piston 26 and its at- 
tached parts operate during an independent applica- 
tion and release ? 

A. No ; they remain inoperative, as shown in Figs. 
101, 102 and 103. 

AUTOMATIC OPERATION. 

Q. How is an automatic service application of 
the brake made f 

A. By moving the handle of the automatic brake 
valve to service position and making the desired brake 
pipe reduction. 

Q. When a reduction in brake pipe pressure 
takes place, what happens in the distributing valve t 

A. With the pressure chamber charged equal to that 
in the brake pipe, a reduction in brake pipe pressure 
causes equalizing piston 26 to move to the right (Fig. 104), 
carrying with it slide valve 31, which closes the exhaust 
port leading from the application chamber to the double 
heading pipe, and the graduating valve 28 is moved to 
the right until it uncovers the service port #, which 
leads into passage h and chamber g, and the application 
chamber, thus allowing air from the pressure chamber 
to flow into the application chamber. The pressure 
thus formed in the application chamber connected with 
chamber g, causes the application piston 10, exhaust 
valve 16, and application valve 5 to assume the position 
shown in Fig. 104, " Automatic Service," and apply the 
brakes. 

When the pressure in the pressure chamber falls 
slightly below that in the brake pipe, equalizing piston 
26 moves back carrying with it the graduating valve 28 



Distributing Valve. 333 

until the latter closes port s, and prevents any further 
flow of air from the pressure chamber to the application 
chamber. It is then in " Service Lap " position as 
shown in Fig. 105. 

Q m How much of a brake pipe service reduction 
is required to set the brake in full? 

A. About 20 pounds, the same as with a triple 
valve. 

Q. How is the brake released automatically ? 

A. An increase of brake pipe pressure raises that in 
chamber p (Fig. 101) of the distributing valve. This 
pressure being greater than that in the pressure cham- 
ber of the distributing valve forces piston 26, and the 
parts controlled by this piston, to the left. In this 
position the pressure from chamber g and the applica- 
tion chamber is free to flow through port k to the 
independent brake valve and thence to the automatic 
brake valve from whence it may escape to the atmos- 
phere when the brake valve handle is in running 
position. 

The escape of the pressure through port ^, connected 
with chamber g y reduces the pressure in this chamber 
and permits the greater pressure in chamber b to force 
piston 10 to the left ; it in turn draws the parts at- 
tached to it to a corresponding position (Fig. 101). In 
this position brake cylinder pressure escapes to the 
atmosphere through ports d and e in the seat of the 
slide valve 16 and the brakes on the locomotive 
release. 

Q. How is an automatic emergency application 
made ? 

A. By making a quick, heavy brake pipe reduction, 
when the equalizing piston 26, with exhaust slide valve 
31, and graduating valve 28, will move their full stroke 



334 Air-Brake Catechism. 

and open port ^_wide to the application chamber as 
shown in Fig. 106, permitting full equalization between 
the pressure chamber and the application chamber, 
thus applying the brakes with full force. 

Q. What other ports are open to the application 
chamber in an emergency application t 

A. Port ;z, leading from passage a and the main 
reservoir, is open to the application chamber so that air 
from the main reservoir can flow 7 into it, and sustain the 
application chamber pressure against the venting of the 
air from this chamber through the safety valve. 

Q. How much pressure is obtained in the ap- 
plication chamber and the brake cylinders in an 
emergency application ? 

A. Assuming the brake pipe pressure to be 70 
pounds, about 60 pounds is had in the brake cylinder. 

Q. How is this additional 10 pounds obtained ? 

A. When the handle of the brake valve is in emer- 
gency position the volume of the brake valve equal- 
izing reservoir is added to that of the application 
chamber, thus increasing the pressure. 

Q. What provision is made to prevent too high 
a pressure in the brake cylinder f 

A. The safety valve, as shown in Fig. 111, is con- 
nected to the distributing valve, and when the pressure 
becomes higher than its limit of adjustment it opens and 
vents the surplus air to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is the emergency lap position of the 
distributing valve ? 

A. It is the position shown in Fig. 107 in which the 
application piston 10 and application valve 5 have 
moved back far enough after brake cylinder pressure 



Distributing Valve. 335 

has equalized with that in the application chamber, to 
close port b and prevent further flow of main reservoir 
air to the brake cylinder. 

Q. What does Fig. 108 illustrate ? 

A. It illustrates the positions of the various valves 
in the distributing valve after an automatic application 
and then an independent release have been made. 

Q. In what kind or applications do the equal- 
izing piston 26 and the slide valve 28 and 31 oper- 
ate ? 

A. In all automatic applications of the brake both 
service and emergency. 

Q. How much pressure can be had in the brake 
cylinder in a jull service application f In an emer- 
gency f 

A. When the brake pipe pressure is seventy pounds, 
about 50 pounds, the same as with the present brake in 
a service application. In an emergency application the 
cylinder pressure would approximate 60 pounds. 

Q. Suppose the high-speed brake pressure of no 
pounds is being used i how much will be had in the 
application chamber in an emergency application ? 

A. About 85 pounds ; the same will be had in the 
brake cylinders, and these pressures will gradually be 
reduced to 60 pounds by the safety valve. 

Q. Is it necessary to break any pipe joints when 
removing the distributing valve from the double 



removing the dist? 
chamber reservoir ? 



A. No ; all the pipe connections are made to the 
double chamber reservoir proper. 



336 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Suppose it were desired to remove the appli- 
cation piston, how should this be done t 

A. The application valve cover 3 should first be re- 
moved, then the application valve 5 and the application 
valve pin 18 should be taken out, after which the appli- 
cation cylinder cover can be removed and the application 
piston taken out for inspection and repairs. 



THE SAFETY VALVE. 

Q. What function does the safety valve shown in 
Fig. in perforin f 

A. It performs all the functions of the ordinary 
brake cylinder relief valve and in addition those of the 
high-speed reducing valves. 

Q. What are the names of the different parts of 
this device f 

A. As shown in the illustration they are, 2, Body ; 
3, Cap Nut ; 4, Valve ; 5, Valve Stem ; 6, Adjusting 
Spring ; 7, Adjusting Nut. 

Q. Of what peculiar style or variety is this 
valve ? 

A. It is known as the pop valve style. 

Q. At what pressure is this valve usually ad- 
justed ? 

A. At 53 pounds. 

Q. Explain its operation ? 

A. The adjustment of the valve is effected by screw- 
ing down the regulating nut* 7 until the adjusting spring 
has sufficient tension to hold valve 4 against the pres- 
sure it is desired to retain, after which the cap nut 3 is 
screwed on firmly in place. When the air pressure 
acting upward on valve 4 is greater than the adjust- 
ing spring can resist, this valve will lift from its seat 
and allow the surplus air to escape through the six 
bottom ports in the body 2. 



338 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What is the object of the by-pass port that 
leads up into the chamber in the body 2 above 
valve 4 ? 

A. When valve 4 lifts to relieve pressure it travels 
far enough to cover the upper end of the by-pass port, 
thus preventing air in any considerable quantity from 
passing into the chamber above. When it commences 
to lower, it increases the opening of this port and allows 
air to pass freely into this chamber, where it will then 
form a pressure above valve 4 and cause it to seat 
promptly. There are two relief ports in the chamber to 
allow the air remaining therein to escape after valve 4 
closes ; while valve 4 uncovers the upper end of this by- 
pass port the two relief ports can not allow the air to 
escape so fast but what pressure will be formed in the 
chamber in the valve body. 



FEED VALVES. 

THE B-4 FEED VALVE. 

Q. What is Fig. 119? 

A. It is a photographic view of the exterior of the 
feed valve, used with the E T equipment, to regulate 
the pressure in the brake pipe when the handle of the 
automatic brake valve is in running or in holding 
position. 




Fig. 119.— B-4 Feed Valve. 



340 Air-Brake Catkchism. 

Q. How does this feed valve differ from the slide 
valve feed valve used with the G-6 brake valve? 

A. Its operation is the same except that, by the 
use of the adjusting wheel it can be adjusted for the 
pressure desired. For description of its operation 
see G-6 Feed Valve. 

Q. What advantage does this adjusting feature 
give over that of the older feed valve? 

A. It makes it possible to dispense with one of the 
two feed valves now used with the high-speed and 
the high-pressure control brakes, also the reversing 
cock bracket. 

Q. Hoiv is the adjustment of the B-4 feed valve 
effected? 

A. By turning the adjusting handle in one direc- 
tion until the lug on it strikes the lower stop the valve 
will maintain 70 pounds brake pipe pressure and by 
turning it in the other direction until the lug strikes 
the upper stop, it will maintain 110 pounds brake pipe 
pressure. 

Q. If any other pressures than the above are de- 
sired, what must be done? 

A. The positions of the stops must be changed. 



THE B-3 REDUCING VALVE. 

Q. What kind of a reducing valve is used with the 
E T equipment? 

A. It is known as the B-3 and is practically the 
same as the B-4 and 6-6 except that it does not have 
the adjusting wheel of the former. For a descrip- 
tion of its operation see G-6 Feed Valve. 



B-3 and B-4 Feed Valves. 341 

Q. At what pressure is it adjusted? 
A. At 45 pounds. 

Q. To what does this pressure reducing valve sup- 
ply air? 

A. It supplies both the independent brake valve 
and the train air signal. 



THE S F-4 PUMP GOVERNOR. 

Q. What is represented in Fig. 120? 

A. The new pump governor, used with both pres- 
ent standard equipment and the new E T equipment. 

Q. In what respect does this type of duplex gov- 
ernor differ from the present standard? 

A. In design one of the pressure tops has two air 
connections and an excess pressure regulating spring ; 
in operation it automatically maintains the excess 
pressure, for which it is adjusted, regardless of what 
the brake pipe pressure may be. 

Q. At what point is the additional air connection 
made? 

A. To the side of the upper portion above the air 
diaphragm 28 to the spring case. 

Q. What is this air connection called? 

A. The feed valve pipe connection. 

Q. What pressure is always in the excess pressure 
top and the feed valve connection? 

A. Maximum brake pipe pressure. 

Q. To what pressure is the other pressure top con- 
nected? 

A. To the main reservoir pressure direct. 
Q. Explain the operation of this governor. 

A. The connection marked A B V has main reser- 
voir air flowing through it into the excess pressure 
top under the air diaphragm 28, when the handle 
of the automatic brake valve is in release, running, or 
holding position ; and the connection marked F V P 
has air at maximum brake pipe pressure flowing 



S F-4 Pump Governor. 



343 



through it to the spring case above the air diaphragm 
regardless of the position of the brake valve handle. 
Assuming that the tension on the excess pressure 
spring 27 is such that it requires an excess pressure 




Fig. 120. — (S.F.-4) Excess Pressure Governor. 

of say 20 pounds beneath the diaphragm to raise it 
against the air pressure bearing down upon it from 
above, hence the main reservoir pressure must be 20* 
pounds in excess of that in the feed valve pipe be- 



344 Air-Brake Catechism. 

fore the diaphragm can be lifted and the pump stop- 
ped. 

If the handle of the automatic brake valve is moved 
to service application position the communication be- 
tween the main reservoir and chamber d of excess 
pressure top is cut off so that the pressure above the 
diaphragm will hold it down with the pin valve on its 
seat; this top cannot then control the pump. The 
pump will now work until the main reservoir ^pres- 
sure reaches that for which the main reservoir top at 
the right is adjusted, say 130 pounds, when this top 
will operate in the usual manner and stop the pump. 

When the handle is moved to release, running or 
holding position, main reservoir air may again flow 
to the excess pressure top to chamber d under the dia- 
phragm. When the brake pipe pressure is restored 
to the maximum for which the feed valve is adjusted, 
and the handle of the brake valve is either in running 
or in holding position, the pump can work until the 
main reservoir has accumulated the proper excess, 
when the excess pressure top will operate and stop 
the pump. 

Q. In the piping diaphragm, Fig. 97, there is 
shoivn, placed in the main reservoir pipe, a cut-out 
cock. At what point with relation to this cock is the 
main reservoir pressure top connected to the main 
reservoir? 

A. It is connected between this cut-out cock and 
the main reservoir. 

Q. Why is it so located? 

A. So that in case it is necessary to close the cut- 
out cock to make repairs to any other part of the 
equipment, the main reservoir pressure top can still 
control the pump, and prevent it from pumping up an 
excessively high main reservoir pressure. 



S F-4 Pump Governor. 345 

Q. What happens ivhen this cut-out is closed? 

A. A port is so arranged that the air in the main 
reservoir pipe and brake pipe is vented to the at- 
mosphere, resulting in an application of the brake. 
If the engineer fails to open the cock the brakes will 
not release and the train cannot be started. 

Q. Aside from the excess pressure top and its air 
connection is the S F-4 pump governor the same in 
construction, design and operation as the older stand- 
ard duplex pump governor? 

A. Yes, just the same. 

Q. Should care be exercised to keep all air con- 
nections tight and all ports in and around the gover- 
nor open? 

A. In order to get satisfactory results all the pipe 
connections should be maintained perfectly tight and 
free from leakage, and all the vent ports should be 
kept open. 

Q. If any of the pipe connections should leak, what 
would be the result? 

A. A waste of air, the amount depending on the 
size of the leaks. 

Q. How is the 8 F-4 pump governor adjusted to 
maintain the proper excess pressure? 

A. By removing the cap nut on the excess pressure 
top, and screwing down on the regulating screw 26 
to increase excess pressure; and by screwing up on 
this screw to reduce it. 



DEFECTS OF "ET" EQUIPMENT. 

Q. If the application chamber pipe should leak 
at any of its connections between the distributing 
valve and the independent brake valve what would 
be the effect? 

A. It would cause the brakes to leak off both in 
automatic service and in independent brake applications. 

Q. If the pipe connection between the independ- 
ent and the automatic brake valves should leak what 
would be the effect f 

A. The brake would leak off in automatic service 
applications, but not in independent brake applications* 

Q. Suppose the double heading pipe should leak 
at any of its connections between the distributing 
valve ana the double cock what would be the effect ? 

A. When an independent brake application was 
made and the handle of the independent brake valve 
was lapped, this leak would permit the brakes to gradu- 
ally release ; in the automatic application it would 
make no difference, but .when a release of an automatic 
application of the train brake was made it would gradu- 
ally destroy the holding feature of the automatic brake 
valve. 

Q. If there should be a leak through the rotary 
of the independent brake valve what would be the 
effect? 



Defects of ET Equipment. 347 

A. While both brakes are released and both brake 
valves are in running position it will cause a slight 
blow at the emergency exhaust port of the automatic 
brake valve. When either the automatic or the inde- 
pendent brake is applied in partial service, it will cause 
a building up of pressure in the application chamber to 
the maximum adjustment of the pressure reducing 
valve, and hence cause the brakes to apply with full 
independent pressure. It will also cause a building up 
of pressure in the application chamber, while the handle 
of the automatic brake valve is in release or in holding 
positions. 

Q. If the main reservoir connection to the dis- 
tributing valve should leak what would be the effect t 

A. It would make no difference with the operation 
of the distributing valve, but it would make the pump 
work harder to supply the leak. 

Q. If the application valve 5 should leak what 
would be the effect, and how could the leak be de- 
tected? 

A. It would increase brake cylinder pressure above 
that in the application chamber, and force the applica- 
tion piston and application valve back far enough to 
allow the surplus air to escape at the brake cylinder 
exhaust port. The leaky valve would be detected by 
the escape of brake cylinder air at the exhaust port 
during a brake application. 

Q. Would this be true if there were leakage in 
the brake cylinders at the same time ? 

A. That would depend on whether the leakage from 
the brake cylinders was greater or less than that 
through the application valve. If greater, there would 
be no escape of air at the brake cylinder exhaust port ; 
if less, there would be. 



348 Air-Brake Catechism. 

. Q. If the graduating spring 20 {Fig. no) should 
break what would be the effect ? 

A. The application piston and valve wonld be less 
sensitive in graduating. 

Q. If the exhaust valve 16 should leak how 
could it be k7iown ? 

A. By a blow from the brake cylinder exhaust port 
while the brakes are applied. 

Q. How would a leaky packing leather and 
packing ring in the application piston affect the 
operation of the distributing valve in brake applica- 
tions ? 

A. It would tend to reduce the efficiency of the valve 
in maintaining any cylinder leakage. 

Q. If equalizing slide valve ji should leak y 
what effect would it produce t 

A. When brakes are released and both brake valves 
are in running position, there would be a slight blow at 
the emergency exhaust port of the automatic brake 
valve. If the independent brake were applied there 
would be an increase in application chamber pressure 
which would cause the brakes to go on harder. If the 
automatic brake is applied in partial service, then 
application chamber pressure would increase and the 
brakes go on harder to the limit of full equalization, if 
ordinary pressure is used ; or if high-speed pressure is 
used, until the safety valve would open and relieve the 
application chamber. 

Q. Suppose the engine having the leaky equaliz- 
ing slide valve were second in a double header what 
might happen then t 



Defects of E T Equipment. 349 

A. The brakes might entirely release, if the applica- 
tion were a partial service. 

Q. Suppose the graduating valve 28 should leak, 
what would be the effect ? 

A. In release position no effect would be observed. 
In partial service application the effect would be the 
same practically as stated for a leaky slide valve 31. 



THE "K" TRIPLE VALVE. 

FOR ILLUSTRATIONS SEE PLATE XIV. 

Q. What does Fig. 121 illustrate ? 
A. Fig. 121 illustrates the improved K triple valve 
which is now superseding the former quick-action triple 

valve. 

Q. Does this triple valve differ any in principle 
of operation from the old standard valve f 

A. No; it operates on the same principle, that is, a 
reduction of brake pipe pressure causes the brake to 
apply and an increase of brake pipe pressure causes it 
to release. 

Q. What are the important advantages of the 
improved valve over the old ? 

A. With the improved valve a portion of the brake 
pipe air is vented to the brake cylinder in each service 
application; this causes a quicker fall of pressure in 
the brake pipe throughout the train and hence a quicker 
serial application of the brakes than is now obtained 
with the older form of triple. In the release of the 
brakes on long trains those on the front portion may be 
held applied until those in the rear have been released ; 
this action causes the slack to settle in instead of 
stretching out, which latter action tends to break the 
train in two. There is also a retarded recharge feature 
by means of which the recharge at the head end is 
slowed up. This makes available a greater amount of 
air with which to release and recharge the brakes at 
the rear of the train ; it also does away with the over- 



K Type (Quick-Service) Triple Valve. 351 

charge of the auxiliary reservoirs at the front of the 
train, which overcharge usually results in the reapplica- 
tion of the brakes near the engine when the brake valve 
handle is moved to running position. The reapplication 
wastes air and overheats wheels because of extra amount 
of work performed. 

Q. What other advantages are obtained with 

the K triple ? 

A. There is a large saving in the quantity of air 
used which results in less pump labor, the brakes apply 
more uniformly and with greater certainty on the 
longest trains and with any service reduction desired. 
In heavy grade work there is much less chance for the 
engineer to " lose his air " and of the train running 
away in consequence. 

Q. In the emergency application of the brake is 
there any advantage of the new triple valve over 
the old? 

A. The emergency feature of the triple has not oeen 
changed and the results that can be obtained with these 
valves are practically identical. 

Q. In service application using a brake pipe 
pressure of 70 pounds^ how much reduction is 
necessary to set the brakes in full? 

A. About 17 pounds, 3 pounds less than with the 
standard triple. 

Q % Will these triples give satisfactory results in 
braking when intermingled in any considerable 
number with the older triples ? 

A. Yes, and on long trains they will very materially 
improve the action of the older triple. 



352 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What does Fig. 122 represent ? 
A. It is a vertical cross section of the K triple repre- 
senting the interior construction. 

Q. What are the names of the different parts of 
the K triple as numbered on this cut f 

A. 2, Valve Body ; 3, Slide Valve ; 4, Main Piston ; 
5, Main-Piston Packing Ring ; 6, Slide- Valve Spring ; 
7, Graduating Valve ; 8, Emergency Piston ; 9 Emerg- 
ency-Valve Seat; 10, Emergency Valve; 11, Emerg- 
ency-Valve Rubber Seat; 12, Check-Valve Spring; 13, 
Check- Valve Case; 14, Check- Valve Case Gasket; 15, 
Check Valve; 16, Air Strainer; 17, Union Nut; 18, 
Union Swivel; 19, Cylinder Cap; 20, Graduating-Stem 
Nut; 21, Graduating Stem; 22, Graduating Spring; 
23, Cylinder-Cap Gasket ; 24, Bolt and Nut ; 25, Cap 
Screw ; 26, Drain Plug ; 27, Union Gasket ; 28, Emerg- 
ency-Valve Nut; 29, Retarded-Release Stem ; 32, Re- 
tarded-Release Spring Collar ; 33, Retarded-Release 
Spring ; 34, Retarded-Release Stem Pin ; 35, Gradu- 
ating-Valve Spring. 

Q. What is represented in Fig. 1 23 ? 

A. A face view of the graduating valve, a face view 
and a top view of the slide valve, and a view of the 
slide valve bush, with their ports, cavities, etc., arranged 
as actually constructed. 

Q. What is represented in Figs. 124 to 128 in- 
clusive ? 

A. These figures are diagrammatic drawings in- 
tended to show clearly the relation of the various ports 
and passages in the different operative positions of the 
valve. 

Q. Explain the operation of the triple as shown- 
in Fig. 124. 



K Type (Quick-Service) Triple Vaeve. 353 

A. Full release position is shown in Fig. 124. Brake 
pipe air enters the triple body at the connection marked 
BP y passes upward through passage a, e, f and g to 
chamber h, thence through the feed groove i past the 
triple piston into chamber R and out to the auxiliary 
reservoir. Brake pipe air also flows past the non-return 
check valve, from chamber a into chamber K, thence 
through passage y in the body and port/ in the slide 
valve to chamber R and the auxiliary reservoir. In this 
way the auxiliary reservoir is charged up equal to the 
pressure in the brake pipe. The slide valve is shown 
in this figure with its exhaust cavity n uncovering wide 
the exhaust port in the slide valve seat leading from the 
brake cylinder to the atmosphere, providing for the 
release of the brake through port r, cavity n, and port p % 

Q. What is shown in Fig. 125? 

A. In this figure, the parts of the K triple are 
represented in the service position, the position they 
assume while a service reduction in brake pipe pres- 
sure is being made. 

Q. Explain the operation in service position. 

A. The triple piston, as shown, has moved toward 
the left until it touches the graduating stem, and 
it has carried with it the main slide and the gradu- 
ating slide valves. Port z in the main slide valve 
registers with port r in its seat. Port z is uncov- 
ered by the graduating valve so that air is free to 
flow from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylin- 
der. At the same time passage y and port are in 
register, and cavity v in the graduating valve spans 
port and q. Port q is in register with port t lead- 
ing around the loosely fitting piston to chamber x 
and the brake cylinder. Hence, arranged as shown, 
these ports permit brake pipe air to flow into the 



354 Air-Brake Catechism. 

brake cylinder at the same time that the auxiliary 
is supplying air. 

Q. What does Fig. 126 represent? 

A. It shows the triple valve in what is termed 
the Service Lap position. 

Q. When does the triple valve assume this posi- 
tion? 

A. When the pressure in the auxiliary falls 
slightly below that remaining in the brake pipe. As 
shown in this figure the triple piston has moved the 
graduating valve back far enough to close ports o, q, 
and z, and thus prevent further flow of air from both 
the auxiliary and the brake pipe to the brake cylin- 
der. It will be noted in the figure that the main 
slide valve is ahead of its position shown in Fig. 
125. The valve would only assume this position if 
the brake pipe pressure were reduced faster than the 
auxiliary reservoir pressure could reduce to the 
brake cylinder, otherwise port o would remain in 
register with port y as in Fig. 125, but the graduat- 
ing valve would have closed ports o and z as shown 
in Fig. 126. 

Q. What is shown in Fig. 127? 
A. Fig. 127 represents the different parts of the 
K triple in the Eetarded Release position. 

Q. Hoiv are they made to assume this position? 

A. By admitting main reservoir air to the brake 
pipe fast enough to increase the pressure consider- 
ably above that remaining in the auxiliary reser- 
voir. 

Q. Explain the operation in the retarded release 

position. 



K Type (Quick-Service) Triple Valve. 355 

A. As shown brake pipe pressure forces the triple 
piston to the extreme right until it strikes against the 
slide valve bush. When this occurs brake-pipe air 
cannot feed through charging groove i but must pass 
through passage y in the slide valve seat and port I 
in the slide valve to reach the auxiliary reservoir. 

The triple piston stem abuts against the retarded 
release spring and partially compresses it. The slide 
valve has moved far enough over to bring the re- 
stricted port n (Fig. 123), the exhaust cavity, over ex- 
haust port p, thus reducing very materially the size 
of this port, causing a slow release of the brake. In 
a long train this retarded release can, if desired, be 
obtained about 30 cars back in the train. 

Q. What is it that causes the triple piston to as- 
sume the retarded release position? 

A. To cause the piston to assume this position it is 
necessary to have the pressure on the brake pipe side 
of the triple piston sufficiently in excess of that in the 
auxiliary reservoir to permit of the greater pressure 
acting on the brake pipe side of the piston to com- 
press the retarded release spring. With the usual 
main reservoir pressure and capacity it is possible to 
compress this spring on a long train about thirty cars 
back. The effect of the friction due to the flow of 
air is to prohibit any rapid rise of brake pipe pres- 
sure back in the train but, as already stated, the de- 
sired differential between the brake pipe and auxiliary 
reservoir pressures can be obtained about thirty cars 
back in a 100-car train. 

Q. What does Fig. 128 represent? 
A. It represents the K triple in the Emergency 
position > 

Q. When does the valve assume this position? 



356 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Whenever a heavy, quick reduction in brake 
pipe pressure is made, as when the brake valve is 
quickly placed in emergency position or a hose 
bursts. 

Q. Explain the operation in emergency position. 

A. It is the same as that given for the standard 
triple. Air is admitted to the top of the emergency 
piston through the large port t. This piston is forced 
downward, and brake pipe pressure raises the non- 
return check valve, and flows quickly through ports r 
and C to the brake cylinder. At the same time port s 
in the slide valve registers with port r so that auxil- 
iary air can flow through this port also to the brake 
cylinder and will equalize with it. 

Q. Hoiv many sizes of the K triple are there? 
A. Two, the K-l and K-2. 

Q. On what size car equipment is the K-l triple 
used? The K-2? 

A. The K-l is used on eight-inch freight equip- 
ment, and the K-2 on ten-inch. 

* Q. Can a K-l and a K-2 triple be readily substi- 
tuted for the older corresponding size of quick-action 
triple? 

A. Yes, they are perfectly interchangeable on 
their respective reservoirs. 

Q. On a train of eighty cars ivill a five-pound 
service reduction set all the brakes? 

A. Yes, and a 5-pound reduction will be as ef- 
fective in stopping an empty train from a speed of 20 
miles per hour as a 20-pound service reduction with 
the older triples. 

Q. Explain this. 



K Type (Quick-Service) Triple Valve. 357 

A. Because of the venting of brake-pipe air to 
the brake cylinder,, a five-pound initial reduction in- 
sures the application of all brakes on the train in a 
much shorter time then they can be applied with 
any service reduction with the older triples, and also 
with a higher pressure than can be obtained from a 
5-pound service reduction with the ordinary quick- 
action triple valve with which on this length of train 
only a comparatively few brakes will apply. 

Q. Is there any difference in the internal con- 
struction of the K-l and the K-2 triples? 

A. In full release position the charging takes 
place through the feed port i only with the K-l triple, 
while a feed port in the piston bush and a port in 
the slide valve are both used with the K-2 valve. 

Q. As to care and maintenance of the K triple, 
do the same rides apply as to the old standard triple? 

A. Yes. 



THE CROSS-COMPOUND 
PUMP. 

Q. Why are larger air compressors necessary in 
modern railway service? 

A. Because of the increased size and weight of 
locomotives and cars, requiring larger brake equip- 
ment, and of the increased number of cars hauled in 
single trains. 

Q. What is the type of air pump shown in Fig. 
129? 

A. It is called the 814-inch cross-compound pump, 
and the drawing illustrates its exterior. 

Q. Hoiv many cylinders has the cross-compound 
pump, and what are they called? 

A. It has four cylinders, two steam and two air. 

Q. Why is this pump named compound? 

A. Because in the steam end it uses the steam 
expansively in two cylinders, and in the air end it 
compounds the air in compression. 

Q. Is this type of pump more economical in the 
use of steam than the familiar types which have al- 
ready been described? 

A. Yes, it is more economical in steam consump- 
tion, using less than one third the steam required by 
the 9^-inch pump to compress the same quantity 
of air. 

Q. In general design and construction, how does 
it compare ivith the 9y 2 -inch and 11-inch pumps? 

A. With the exception of the number of cylinders 
and the type of main slide valve, it is of the same 
general plan. 



Cross-Compound Pump. 



359 




Fig. 129.— 8^-Inch Cross-Compound Pump. 

Q. Which are the steam cylinders and which are 
the air? 

A. The two upper cylinders are the steam and 
the two lower the air, this arrangement being the 
same as that of the other Westinghonse pumps. 

Q. What are the diameters of the respective cyl- 
inders? 



360 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. The smaller steam cylinder is 8y 2 inches, the 
larger is 14^ inches, in diameter; the smaller air 
cylinder is 9 inches, and the larger 14y 2 inches in 
diameter. 

Q. What names are used to distinguish these cyl- 
inders? 

A. The smaller cylinders are called the high- 
pressure steam and the high-pressure air, while the 
largei ones are called the low-pressure steam and the 
low-pressure air. 

Q. Hoiv are the high and the low-pressure cylin- 
ders arranged tvith respect to each other? 

A. The high-pressure steam cylinder is above the 
low-pressure air cylinder, and the low-pressure steam 
is above the high-pressure air cylinder. 

Q. What type of reversing valve gear is em- 
ployed in this pump? 

A. The same as in the 9%-inch and the 11-inch 
pumps. 

Q. Does it operate the same? 
A. Practically the same. 

Q. How are the pistons and the rods connected? 

A. The high-pressure steam and the low-pressure 
air pistons are connected by one piston rod, and the 
low-pressure steam and the high-pressure air pistons 
are connected by the other. 

Q. Hoiv many air valves has the pump, and what 
are they called? 

A. It has six valves, and they are called the re- 
ceiving, the intermediate discharge, and the final- 
discharge valves, two of each. 



Cross-Compound Pump. 



361 



S8 



STEAM ££]' 
EXHAUST. 



AIR DISCHARGE 



STEAM INLET . 




40 



38 



Fig. 130. 



Diagram of Cross-Compound Pump. 
High-Pressure Side. 



Up Stroke 



362 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How many air strainers has the pump? 
A. Two, one for the upper receiving valve and 
one for the lower. 

Q. In which air cylinder are the air-receiving 
valves located? 

A. In the low-pressure air cylinder. 

Q. Where are the intermediate air-discharge 
valves located? • 

A. They are located between the low-pressure and 
the high-pressure air cylinders. 

Q. Where are the final discharge valves located? 
A. They are located in the ends of the high-pres- 
sure air cylinder. 

Q. What is the difference between the main slide 
valve in the cross-compound and the ordinary D slide 
valve of the 9 1 / 2 -i /n ch pump? 

A. The main slide valve in the cross-compound 
is longer than that in the 9^-inch pump, and besides 
the usual exhaust cavity, it contains four elongated 
steam ports in its face. 

Q. What are Figs, 130 and 131, and ivhat do they 
shoiv? 

A. They are diagrammatic drawings of. the cross- 
compound pump, and show the various ports and 
passages and the relative positions of the various 
parts on the up-stroke and the down-stroke of the 
pistons. 

Q. Explain the operation in the steam end on the 
up-stroke of the high-pressure steam piston? 

A. Referring to Fig. 130, steam from the boiler 
enters the pump at the point marked ' ' steam inlet, ' ? 
flows through passage a to the top head and fills the 



Cross-Compound Pump. 



3 6 3 



STEAM INLET. 




40 



38 



Fig. 131. 



Diagram of Cross-Compound Pump. Down Stroke,, 
High-Pressure Side. 



364 Air-Brake Catechism. 

main slide-valve chamber between the pistons 26 and 
28 of the main reversing valve. It also flows through 
port j to the reversing slide-valve chamber, and 
through passage n, leading from this chamber to the 
chamber behind the larger main reversing piston 26, 
forcing the reversing valve 72 to the right to the 
position shown. This brings port k in the slide valve 
in register with port and passage g leading to the 
lower end of the high-pressure steam cylinders, thus 
providing for the admission of live steam under the 
high-pressure steam piston 7, starting it on its up- 
ward stroke. 

Q. Where does the steam go that ivas used in the 
high-pressure steam cylinder on the previous doivn 
stroke? 

A. Port c in the slide valve seat, which leads into 
the upper end of the high-pressure steam cylinder, is 
in register with port and passage h in the slide-valve 
seat, and this port and passage registers with port d 
in its seat, which leads into the upper end of the low- 
pressure cylinder, thus the steam from above the 
high-pressure piston exhausts through port c, port 
and passage h\ h, and port d into the upper end of 
the low-pressure steam cylinder, and drives the low- 
pressure piston on its down stroke. 

Q. Do the loiv-pressure pistons make their down 
stroke as the high-pressure pistons make their up 
strokes f 

A. Yes, and vice versa, as the low-pressure pis- 
tons make their up stroke the high-pressure pistons 
make their down stroke. 

Q. Hoiv is the stroke of the steam pistons re- 
versed? 

A. When the high-pressure steam piston ap- 
proaches close to the upper end of its cylinder, the 



Cross-Compound Pump. 365 

tappet plate engages the shoulder on the reversing 
valve rod 21, forces this rod and the reversing slide 
valve 22, which is attached to it, upward to the posi- 
tion shown in Fig. 131. The reversing slide valve 
22 in this position connects the chamber behind piston 
26 and passage m, through its exhaust cavity, with 
passage I and the exhaust to the atmosphere. With 
the steam pressure removed from behind piston 26 
the steam pressure on the other side forces it and slide 
valve 72 ? which it controls, to the left. In the posi- 
tion shown, live steam enters the upper end of the 
high-pressure steam cylinder through port k in the 
slide valve and port c in its seat, thus causing the 
high-pressure steam piston to start on its down stroke. 
At the same time the high-pressure steam piston 
starts on its down stroke, the steam in the lower end 
of the high-pressure steam cylinder exhausts through 
port and passage g in the slide-valve seat, port h" in 
the slide valve, and port and passage / leading to 
the lower end of the low-pressure steam cylinder and 
starts the low-pressure piston on its up stroke. 

Q. Explain the operation in the air end. 

A. Commencing with the low-pressure air cylin- 
der it will be seen that as the low-pressure air piston 
is making its up stroke, it tends to form a vacuum 
behind it and the atmospheric pressure raises the 
lower air-inlet valve 38 and air flows into the cylinder 
past this valve, to fill the partial vacuum formed by 
the moving air piston. The air contained in the cyl- 
inder above the piston is compressed, as the piston 
advances, and is forced through the intermediate air- 
discharge valve 39 into the upper end of the high- 
pressure air cylinder above the high-pressure piston 
10. Upper air-inlet valve 37 is forced to its seat 
during the up stroke of the low-pressure piston, thus 
preventing the escape of any air back to the atmos- 



366 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pliere. The air compressed by piston 9 on its up 
stroke is forced into the chamber above piston 10 and 
aids the steam acting downward on piston 8 to force 
pistons 8 and 10 downward. 

On the down stroke of the high-pressure air piston 
10, the air under it which was previously forced into 
this cylinder by the low-pressure air piston on its 
down stroke, is compressed to main reservoir pressure 
and forced out through the lower final discharge 
valve 42 to the air discharge pipe and the main 
reservoir. 

On the down stroke of the low-pressure and the 
up stroke of the high-pressure air pistons, the opera- 
tions just explained are repeated, only the air is 
drawn in from the atmosphere through the upper 
discharge valve 37, and is discharged through lower 
intermediate-discharge valve 40 into the lower end 
of the high-pressure air cylinder, and is discharged 
to the main reservoir through the upper final-dis- 
charge valve 41 into the air discharge pipe and main 
reservoir. 

Q. What maximum pressure does the low-pres- 
sure air piston work against? 

A. About 40 pounds. 

Q. What maximum pressure does the high-pres- 
sure air piston work against? 

A. Main reservoir pressure, whatever it may be. 

Q. How does the capacity of the cross-compound 
pump compare with that of the other air pumps? 

A. When working with 200 pounds of steam pres- 
sure, against a main reservoir pressure of 130 pounds 
it has nearly three and one-half times the capacity of 
the 9y 2 -inch pump, two and three-tenths the capacity 
of the 11-inch pump, one and eight-tenths the capacity 



Cross-Compound Pump. 367 

of the tandem compound pump, and one and one- 
half times the capacity of the New York No. 5 duplex 
pump. 

Q. Why is it that the air capacity of this pump 
is so much greater than that of any of the others? 

A. Making due allowance for its size, its greater 
capacity and efficiency is due to its design which has 
cut down the clearance ratio to almost nothing, and 
because the air pistons have less difference of pres- 
sure on their two sides to work against, hence there 
is less packing ring leakage encountered, and the 
pump runs cooler. 

Q. Is the lore-pressure steam piston rod solid or 
hallow? 

A. It is solid, and this piston, together with the 
high-pressure air pistons, is called a floating piston. 

Q. Why are they called floating pistons? 

A. They perform no part in reversing the pump. 

Q. About how many cycles per minute should the 
pump speed be? 

A. About 65, and with 200 pounds of steam pres- 
sure it cannot be made to run any faster. 

Q. Then the pump cannot be raced? 

A. No, not even against a comparatively low air 
pressure, and it is practically impossible to create 
conditions which will result in any pounding. 

Q. Hoiv should it be started, drained, and lubri- 
cated? 

A. The same general rules given for the other 
pumps apply in operating the compound. 



INDEX. 

• See also index to Appendix pages 374 and 375. 



PAGE 

Aie brake and hand brake 

working opposite . . .63 to 65 
Air brake and hand brake 

working together .... 63 to 65 
Air brake applied, revers- 
ing engine 261, 264, 265 

Air brake, definition 17 

Air expansion, to calculate, 

296, 297 
Air brake, invention. 17, 18, 35 
Air brake, plain automatic. 18, 19 
Air brake, plain automatic, 

car equipment 21 

Air brake, quick-action. ... 19 
Air brake recording gauges, 

229 to 233 

Connection 229 

Horizontal type 233 

Object sought 230 

Operation 229 

Revolving type 233 

Speed of 230 to 232 

Air brake, straight 17, 18 

Air brake, to apply 29 

Air brake, to release 31 

Air brake versus hand brakes 253 

Air gauge, incorrect 117 

Air hose and specifications, 

291 to 294 

Freight hose 291 

Passenger hose 291 

Signal hose 291 

Porous hose 292 

Use of marking. ...... 292 

Air pumps. See Pumps. 

Air valve lift, 8-inch 145 

Air valve lift, 9% -inch 142 

American brake leverage, 

288 to 290 
American brake-slack adjus- 
ter 66 to 73„ 

Angle cock closed 246 

Appliances and methods of 

testing triple valves. 217 to 227 
Area of piston, to calculate. 296 
Automatic and straight-air 
brake. See Combined Au- 
tomatic and Straight-air. 
Auxiliary reservoir, charging. 27 
Auxiliary reservoir, how to 

charge 27, 31, 32 

Auxiliary reservoir leak. ... 45 
Auxiliary reservoir not 

charging 238 

Auxiliary reservoir, will not 
charge 40, 41 

Beginnings of the air brake, 

17 to 20 



PAGE 

Blow at exhaust of triple 

valve 241 

Blow at train line exhaust. 240 

Blow out train line 235 

Broken graduating spring. 42, 43 

Brake application, meaning.. 256 

Brake, full set 30 

Brake leaking off 238 

Brake not applied 238 

Brake, not apply 40, 41 

Brake tests 261 to 267 

Brake valves, different kinds 90 

D 8, emergency position. 124 
D 8, high main reservoir 

pressure 128, 129 

D 8, how to remove ex- 
cess nressure valve . . 127 

D 8, lap position 121 

D 8, no excess 127 

D 8, release position.119, 120 

D 8, running position. . . 120 
D 8, service position. 121-123 
D 8, too much or too 

little excess 128 

G 6, emergency position, 

99, 100 

G 6, lap position 96, 97 

G 6, no excess running 

position 114 to 116 

G 6, parts 91 

G 6, positions 91, 92 

G 6, preliminary exhaust 

port closed 117 

G 6, release position. 92 to 94 

G 6, running position . . 95 

G 6, service position. 97 to 99 

G 6, troubles 114 to 119 

Location 90 

Leak at train line ex- 
haust 116, 117 

Test for leaking rotary, 

115- 116 
Comparisons of D 8 and 

G6 130, 131 

Brakes will not apply with 
brake valve in service posi- 
tion 117 

Brakes stuck 259 

Braking power and leverage, 

271 to 286 
Braking power as af- 
fected by load 273 

Braking power six-wheel 

trucks 271 

Braking power used on 

drivers 271, 272 

Braking power used on 

freight car 271 



37^ 



Index. 



PAGE 

Braking- power and leverage : 
Braking power used on 

passenger car 271 

Braking power used on 

tenders 272 

Cylinder pressure used in 

figuring braking power 274 
Cylinder values, table. . 274 
Definition braking power 

and leverage 271 

Figuring braking power. 272 
How to design a brake 

gear 279 to 283 

Lever of first kind or 

class 274, 275 

Lever of second kind or 

class 276 

Lever of third kind or 

class 277 

Proportion of levers . . 278 
To figure percentage of 

braking power 271 

To figure braking power 

by a short method. 285, 286 
To find force acting on 

piston 272, 273 

Braking power lost by 

heavy reduction 248, 249 

Braking power possible, us- 
ing retainer 252 

Brakes dragging 252 

Brakes stuck 251 

Cam brake 270 

Charge a train 235, 236 

Cleaning slack adjuster. .,. . 73 

Closed angle cock '. . 246 

Combined Automatic and 

Straight air 201 to 213 

Advantages 202, 203 

Blow at exhaust 213 

Brake releasing 212 

•Cause of brake releas- 
ing 213 

•Cleaning brake valve... 213 
Directions for using.... 206 
Double check valve, op- 
eration 203, 204 

How to use 206 

Operation 205 

Parts employed 203 

Piping brake valve.211, 212 

Reducing valve 203 

Safety valve, duties. . . . 205 
Slide-valve reducing 

valve 203 

Straight-air brake valve, 

operation 207 to 211 

Troubles, brake valve, 

212, 213 

Coupling to train 243, 244 

Cutting out car 239 

Cylinder lever 55 

Cylinder oil plug 52 

Cylinder release spring weak 240 

Cylinder volume, to calculate 296 



page 
Cylinders to be used on dif- 
ferent vehicles 287 

D 8 bkake valve. See Brake 
valve. 

Dead lever 54 

Dirty triple piston 43, 44 

Dirty triple valve strainers. 41 

Double heading 260, 261 

Driver brake, cutting out on 

grade 259 

Dry steam for pump 132 

Duplex main reservoir regula- 
tion . . 214 to 216 

Adjustment of governors 214 

Advantages 214 

Operation 214, 216 

Emekgency after service ap- 
plication 37 

Emergency application, cars 
cut out 41, 42 

Emergency application fol- 
lowed by release 254, 255 

Emergency application on 
turntable 255 

Emergency application, quick- 
action triple valve.. 37 to 39 

Emergency application, serv- 
ice reduction 240 

Emergency application, un- 
desired 43, 44 

Emergency, use of 261 

Engineer's brake valve. See 
Brake valve. 

Engineer's equalizing reser- 
voir or "little drum", 

110 to 113 

Equalizing piston, discharges 
air when releasing 126 

Equalizing piston, not sensi- 
tive 117 

Equalizing piston troubles, , 
D8 brake valve 129 

Equalizing reservoir, loca- 
tion 110 

Equalizing reservoir, pipe 
broken 112, 113 

Equalizing reservoir, use. . . . 110 

Excess pressure, its use. . . . 100 

Expansion of air, to cal- 
culate 296, 297 

Feed valve, removal 109 

Feed valve (old style) or • 
train line governor. 105 to 109 

Defects 106, 107 

Operation 105 

Use 105 

Feed grooves dirty 242 

Fibre strain of levers. . .297, 298 

Floating lever 55 

Freight equipment, kinds. ... 53 
Freight equipment, parts and 

use 49 to 53 

Full service reduction 247 



Index. 



37i 



PAGE 

Full service reduction in 
testing brakes 244 

O 6 Brake valve. iee Brake 
valves. 

Gauge, incorrect 117 

Gauge, necessity for watch- 
ing 253 

Gain in braking power 200 

Graduating spring broken or 

weak 42, 43 

Graduating valve, leak 48 

Hand brakes versus air 

brakes 253 

Hand brake used with 

air 258, 259 

High pressure control or 

Schedule U 197 to 200 

Advantages 197,198 

Object 197 

Wheel sliding possibility 197 
Effect of light service 

reductions 200 

Operation 198, 199 

Light cars in train .... 199 
Reduction to obtain full 

power 200 

Use of safety valves .... 200 

High-speed brake 185 to 196 

Efficiency 185 to 195 

Best method of using for 

stops 192 

Cleaning 195 

Comparison with quick- 
action 196 

Cvlinder pressure, serv- 
ice reduction ....190, 192 

Oiling 195 

Operation of reducing 

valve 185, 187, 194 

Percentage of braking 

power used 185 

Principles involved .... 186 
Quick service application 192 
Reducing valve opera- 
tion 186 

Special advantages .... 194 

Hodge lever 55 

Hose lining loose 245 

Hose, pulling apart 260 

Hose specifications. . .292 to 294 
Hose specifications. See Air 

hose specifications. 
Hose. See Air hose and 

Specifications. 
How to conduct train test. . 234 

Initial reduction, using re- 
tainers 252 

Initial reduction 246, 247 

Leak by graduating valve . . 48 

Leak in auxiliary reservoir. 45 
Leak in emergency valve 

rubber seat 46, 47 



PAGE 

Leak in train line 45 

Leakage test of train 

line 245, 246 

Leaks in train line. .237 to 239 

Leaks in triple valve 45 

Leaving train on grade 259 

Levers, cylinder 55 

Lever, dead 54 

Lever, floating 55 

Lever, Hodge 55 

Lever, live 54 

Lever, piston 54 

Levers, to calculate size of. 297 

Little drum, location 110 

Little drum, pipe broken. ... 112 
Little drum, 20-pound reduc- 
tion 113 

Little drum pressure feeding 

up on lap 253 

Little drum, use 110 

Live lever 54 

Location of throttle and gov- 
ernor 133 

Loose packing rings 142 

Loss of braking power 248 

Lubricants 228 

Main Reservoir 84 to 88 

Advantages if large. ... 86 

Bad effects if too small. 85 
Capacity recommended, 

84, 85, 88 

Draining 87 

Location 86, 87 

Object 84 

Pressure carried 84 

Use of two 87 

Water in it 87 

Necessity for watching 
gauge 253 

Necessity for testing train. . 244 
Nine and one-half inch 

pump. See Pumps. 
Nine and one-half inch 

pump, right and left hand. 

See Pumps. 

Oil plug, cylinder 52 

Old style feed valve. See 

Feed valve (old style) or 

train line governor. 
Outside equalized brake, 

288 to 290 

Parts and use, freight equip- 
ment 49 to 53 

Passenger train, releasing 

brakes 256 

Passenger train stops... 257, 258 

Piping: 268 to 269 

Blowing out 268 

Effect on emergency ap- 
plication 269 

Elbows and short bends 268 
Securing 269 



372 



Index. 



PAGE 

Piping" : 

Testing 269 

To loosen scale 268 

Sags 268 

Use of red lead or other 

compound 268 

Use of larger pipe on 

freight cars 269 

Fiston area, to calculate.... 296 

Piston lever 55 

Piston travel 54 to 65 

Advantages and disad- 
vantages (long)... 62, 63 
Advantages and disad- 
vantages (short).. 62, 63 
Car light or loaded .... 61 

Effects if uneven 58 

Effect on power. . .55 to 57 

Proper amount 61, 62 

Running 60 to 69 

Standing 60 to 69 

Table of pressures 56 

Taking up 62, 63 

Too long 60 

Too long, using slack 

adjuster 71, 72 

To tell how long without 

air 61 

To wear out brake shoes, 

295, 296 
Piston travel, proper amount 286 
Plain automatic air brake. 18, 19 
Plain automatic air brake, 

car equipment 21 

Plain triple valve emergency 

application 33 

Plain triple valve, opera- 
tion 27 to 34 

Plain triple valve, parts. 22, 23 
Plain triple valve, service ap- 
plication 28 to 32 

Plain triple valve, use of, 

Plate II, 34 
Position of cock handles. . . . 235 

Pumps 132 to 153 

Cause of blows 138 

Cause of .dancing 142 

Cause of heating 142 

Cause of pounding 138 

Cause of starting slow. . 156 
Cause of stopping. . .141, 143 

Eight-inch 145 to 149 

Eight-inch, capacity . . . 133 
Eight-inch, lift of air 

valves 145 

Eight-inch, operation . . 

145 to 149 

Eight-inch, troubles 148 

Eleven-inch 151 to 153 

Eleven-inch, capacity... 151 
Eleven-inch, operation . . 151 

Eleven-inch, parts 151 

How to clean . 143 

How to cool 142 

How to run 141 

Location 138 



PAGE 

Pumps : 

Nine and one-half inch 

132 to 144 

Nine and one-half inch, 

capacity 133 

Nine and one-half inch, 

lift of air valves. . . . 142 
Nine and one-half inch, 

operation 134 to 137 

Nine and one-half inch, 

packing 137 

Nine and one-half inch, 

valve motion .... 133, 134 
Nine and one-half inch, 

right and left 149, 150 

Oiling air end 138 

Oiling steam end ..137, 138 

Starting 138 

Uneven strokes of.. 140, 141 

Pump governors 154 to 160 

Blow at relief port.... 157 
Description — improved 

type 154 

Drip pipe closed 156 

Operation — improved 

type 154 to 156 

Operation, old style, 

157 to 159 
Relief port closed in 

pump governor 156 

Sensitiveness of pump 

governor 159 

Quick-action triple valve, 
advantages 35 

Quick-action triple, opera- 
tion 35 to 48 

Quick-action triple valve, 
emergency application. 37 to 39 

Quick-action triple valve, 
parts and use 36 to 38 

Rechakging on grade 250 

Recording gauges. See Air 

brake recording gauges. 
Reduction, full service. .247, 248 

Reduction, initial 246,247 

Regulating valve stem too 

long 103 

Release, following emergency 

application 254 

Release of long travel brakes 259 
Releasing brakes, freight 

train 256, 257 

Releasing brakes on passen- 
ger train 256 

Report of train test 237 

Retaining valve gone 239 

Retaining valves 74 to 83 

Retaining valves, advan- 
tages 251, 252 

Defects 77, 78 

Different types, names 

and uses 81 to 83 

Location 74 



Index. 



373 



PAGE 

Retaining valves : 

Operation 75, 76 

Special advantage. 78 to 80 

Table of pressures .... 80 

To test 77, 236, 237 

Uses 74, 77, 78 

Retaining valves, use of . . . . 258 

Retaining valves, using a few 258 
Reversing engine with air 

brake applied 261 

Rules and formulae for air- 
brake inspectors ...295 to 299 
Runaway trains 257 

Schedule U or high-pressure 
control. See High-pressure 
control 197 to 200 

Schedule U. See High-pres- 
sure control. 

Shoe movement 295 

Signal system 170 to 184 

Car discharge valve . . . 171 

Parts on car 171 

Parts on engine 170 

Reducing valve, duty . . . 172 
Reducing valve, loca- 
tion 171 

Reducing valve, opera- 
tion 172 

Reducing valve, opera- 
tion (old style) 174 

Signal strainer, engine.. 173 
Signal valve, location. . 171 

Strainer, engine 173 

Whistle 174, 175 

Signal valve operation. 175 to 177 
Blows when brake is re- 
leased 182 

Cause of whistle screech- 
ing 182 

Constant blow 184 

How to change pres- 
sure 184 

How to test pressure... 183 
Improper response. 181, 182 

Lack of air 179, 180 

Long blast 183 

Method of using 178 

No response 180, 181 

Troubles 179, 184 

Slack adjuster, cleaning. ... 73 

How to apply 71, 72 

Operation 66, 67 

Parts and use 66 

Piston travel too long.71, 72 
Piston travel too short, 

71, 72 
Stuck 72, 73 

Slide valve feed valve. 101 to 104 

Defects 103, 104 

Duties 25, 26 

How to adjust 103 

Leak in supply valve. . . 45 

Operation 101,103 

Parts 104 



page 
Slide valve feed valve : 

Regulation 103 

Use 101 

Regulating valve too long 103 

Stops, freight train 266, 267 

Stops, passenger trains 257 

Stops, to estimate length of. 299 

Stops, water tank 255, 256 

Straight-air and automatic 
combined. See Combined 
automatic and straight- 
air. 
Straight-air brake. See Com- 
bined automatic and 
straight-air brake. 
Straight-air brake valve. 

Straight-air brake 17, 18 

Stuck brakes 251, 259 

Stuck triple piston 43, 44 

Stuck air valves 139 to 141 

The Sweeney compressor. . . 161 

Taking on cars, test 258 

Tests. See Brake tests. 

Testing a train 234, 242 

The water brake 162 to 169 

Thermal brake test 241, 242 

Time to charge a train. .235, 236 

Too little excess 128 

Total leverage 295 

Train handling 243 to 261 

Train inspection 234 to 242 

Train, leaving on grade. . . . 259 
Train line exhaust, blow. . . . 249 
Train line governor (old 
style). See Feed valve 
(old style) or train line 
governor. 
Train line leaks, 

45, 237 to 239, 252, 253, 260 
Train line pressure too 

high 106, 107 

Train line, usual pressure ... 95 
Triple feed grooves dirty. . . . 242 
Triple piston dirty or stuck.43, 44 
Triple valve, dirty strainers. 41 
Triple valve, duties of gradu- 
ating valve 24, 25 

Triple valve, duties of piston 24 
Triple valve, feed ports.27, 31, 32 

Triple valve, leaks 45 

Triple valve, plain, opera- 
tion 27 to 34 

Triple valve, plain, parts. 22, 23 
Triple valve, slide valve, du- 
ties 25, 26 

Triple valve, slide valve leak 45 
Triple valve testing plants, 

217 to 227 

Cleaner's test 223 

Controlling valve opera- 
tion 217 to 219 

Repair test 227 

Shop repair test 225 

Yard test 219 to 223 



374 



Index. 



PAGE 

Triple valve, why so called. . 27 
Triple valve, quick-action, ad- 
vantages 35 

Triple valve, quick-action, 

emergency application. 37 to 39 
Triple valve, quick-action, 

parts and use 36 to 38 

Turntable stops 255 

Use of brake valves 132 



PAGE 

Volume of cylinder, to cal- 
culate 296, 

Water in brake system 42 

Water brake 163 to 169 

For compound en- 
gines 165 to 169 

For simple engines. 163 to 165 

Water tank stops 255, 256 

Weak graduating spring. .42, 43 
Weak release spring 240 



INDEX TO APPENDIX 



B 3 reducing valve 340 

B 4 feed valve 339, 340 

Brake valve H 5 314 

Brake valve, H 5, description 
of 314 to 321 

Brake valve, H 5, emergency 
application 319 

Brake valve, H 5, emergency 
position 315 

Brake valve, H 5, holding 
position 318 

Brake valve, H 5, holding 
position 314, 315 

Brake valve, H 5, illustra- 
tions Plate XIII 

Brake valve, H 5, lap posi- 
tion 319 

Brake valve, H 5, oil plug... 320 

Brake valve, H 5, positions. . 314 

Brake valve, H 5, release 
position 317 

Brake valve, H 5, running 
position 318 

Brake valve, H 5, service ap- 
plication 319 

Brake valve S. F'., descrip- 
tion of operation. . ..321 to 326 

Brake valve S. F., illustra- 
tions Plate XIII 

Brake valve (S. F.), indepen- 
dent 321 to 326 

Brake valve, fe. F., positions 
of handle 322, 323 

Combined strainer and check 
valve 312 

Cross-compound pump. 358 to 367 

Cross-compound pump, ca- 
pacity of 366, 367 

Cross-compound pump, care 
of 367 

Cross-compound pump, down 
stroke of, high-pressure 
piston 363 to 365 

Cross-compound pump, maxi- 
mum pressure operated 
against 366 

Cross-compound pump, opera- 
tion of 359 to 367 

Cross-compound pump, up- 
stroke of high-pressure 
piston 361 



Distributing valve, auto- 
matic operation of 332 

Distributing valve, descrip- 
tion of 327 to 33a 

Distributing * valve, different 
positions 329 

Distributing valve, emer- 
gency application 333, 334 

Distributing valve, illustra- 
tions Plate XIII 

Distributing valve, indepen- 
dent application »330 

Distributing valve, indepen- 
dent release 335 

Defects with E T equipment, 

346 to 349' 

Double heading equipment... 313 

E T, parts of 308 

E T, advantages of 308, 309 

E T Brake. E T, improve- 
ments embodied 307 

E T double heading equip- 
ment 313: 

E T brake equipment 307 

E T equipment, defects, 

346 to 349 

E T equipment, operation of, 

308 to 31& 

E T, kind of service used 
in 308 

E T, piping diagram. . Plate XIII 

Excess pressure governor, 
S. F.-4 342 to 345 

Feed valve, see B 4 feed 
valve and B 3 reducing 
valve 339 to 341 

H 5 brake valve, see Brake 
valve 314 

Independent brake valve, 
purpose of 311 

Independent brake valve, 
see Brake valtV (S. F.). 

K triple valve, see Triple 
valve. 

Main reservoir cut-out cock.. 310 J 



Index. 



375 



PAGE 

Positions of brake valve, 
see Brake valve. 

Pump, cross-compound, see 
Cross-compound pump. 

Pump governor, S F-4 (ex- 
cess pressure) . . . .342 to 345 

Safety valve, with E T 
equipment 337, 338 

Schedule E T 307 

Schedule E T, improvements 
embodied 307 

S F brake valve, see Brake 
valve (S F.). 

S F-4 pump governor (ex- 
cess pressure) ....342 to 345 

Triple valve, K, advan- 
tages of 350, 351 

Triple valve, K, different 
kinds , 356 



PAGE 

Triple valve, K, effect on 
other valves 351 

Triple valve, K, emergency 
position 356 

Triple valve, K, equaliza- 
tion with 351 

Triple valve, K, lap posi- 
tion 354 

Triple valve, K, operation 
of 353 to 357 

Triple valve, K, parts of . . . 352 

Triple valve, K, release posi- 
tion 353 

Trinle valve, K, retarded re- 
lease position 354, 355 

Triple valve, K, service posi- 
tion 353 

Triple valve. K type (quick 
service), illustrations. 

Plate XIV 



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SLOANE. Arithmetic of Electricity. 

A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds, 
reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involv- 
ing only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated by one or more 
practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. Sixteenth 
edition. Illustrated. 162 pages. Cloth. $1.00. 

«LOANE. Electrician's Handy Book. 

This book supplies a distinct want in the realm of electrical 
literature. It is designed to cover the field of practical engineer- 
ing, yet to include nothing unnecessary for the every day worker 
in electricity to know. Its pages are not encumbered with any 
useless theory — everything in it is to the point and can be 
readily understood by the non-technical man, and at the same 
time the educated engineer will receive great benefit from its 
perusal. It is a modern book of reference, a compendium of use- 
ful data. It gives the clue to the operation of electrical sys- 
tems of to-day leaving out the old and useless matter which 
has encumbered many text books, yet not omitting hints from 
the past which have a meaning in the present. The latest and 
best authority on all branches of applied electricity. Pocketbook 
size. Handsomely bound in leather, with title and edges in gold. 
800 pages. 500 illustrations. Price, $3.50. 
SLOANE. Ruhher Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of Rubber. 

A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of rubber 
.artices. 146 pages. Second edition. Cloth. $1.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

SLOANE. Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building, and Electric 
Motor Construction. 

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, 
electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos, and instruments in gen- 
eral, and is designed to bring within the reach of young and old 
the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. Fif- 
teenth edition. Fully illustrated. 183 pages. Cloth. $1.00. 
SLOANE. Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. 

Containing the full theory of the subject and giving the 
entire history of liquefaction of gases from the earliest times to 
the present. 365 pages, with many illustrations. Second edition. 
$2.50. 
SLOANE. Standard Electrical Dictionary. 

A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of 
about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. An entirely new 
edition, brought up to date and greatly enlarged. Complete, con- 
cise, convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. $3.00. 
USHER. The Modern Machinist. 

A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of 
modern machine-shop practice, and the applications of recent 
improved appliances, tools and devices for facilitating, duplicat- 
ing and expediting the construction of machines and their parts. 
A new book from cover to cover. Fifth edition. 257 engravings. 
322 pages. Cloth. $2.50. 
VAN DERVOORT. American Lathe Practice. 

A new book from cover to cover. It is strictly up-to-date in 
its descriptions and illustrations, which represent the very latest 
practice in lathe and boring-mill operations as well as the con- 
struction of and latest developments in the manufacture of these 
important classes of machine tools. A large amount of space is 
devoted to the turret lathe, its modifications and importance as a 
manufacturing tool. 320 pages. 200 illustrations. $2.00. 

VAN DERVOORT. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Their Construc- 
tion, Operation and Manipulation. 

This is a book of reference that will be found convenient 
in every machine shop. Suppose it is desired to know how to 
cut bevel gears, to calculate milling machine spirals or to make 
countershaft calculations; or to get information about tap drill 
sizes, the classification of files; change gear calculations; deep 
hole drilling; turning tapers; testing lathes, etc.; or any one 
of the numerous questions that a little information might be de- 
sired upon occasionally — these pages will be found to contain 
the satisfactory answer. The book will also prove a boon to 
students in manual training, as by studying its pages and apply- 
ing its principles to the school shop, they will be able to acquire 
a good knowledge of shop practice. The book has numerous 
tables, and in addition to the chapters strictly on tools are 
several on fastenings, gearing, belting, shafting, and the treat- 
ment of steel. 552 pages and 673 illustrations. $4.00. 
WALLIS - TAYLOR. Pocket Book of Refrigeration and Ice 
Making. 

This explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the 
different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery 
and the construction and insulation of cold rooms with their re- 
quired pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mix- 
tures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all 
kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, 
ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co, 

reference by refrigerating- engineers, with nearly one hundred 
tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition 
required in the installment and operation of a refrigerating 
plant. Price, $1.50. 

WOOD WORTH. American Tool Making and Interchangeable 
Manuf ac tu r ing ;. 

A complete treatise on the Art of American Tool Making and 
System of Interchangeable Manufacturing as carried on to-day in 
the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the 
different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices and 
special appliances which are in general use in all machine manu- 
facturing and metal working establishments where economy, ca- 
pacity and interchangeability in the production of machined 
metal parts are imperative. 500 pages. 600 illustrations. Price, 
$4.00. 

WOODWORTH. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modern 
Working of Sheet Metals. 

A practical work on the designing, constructing and use of 
tools, fixtures and devices, together with the manner in which 
they should be used in the power press for the cheap and rapid 
production of sheet metal parts and articles. Comprising funda- 
mental designs and practical points by which sheet metal parts 
may be produced at the minimum of cost to the maximum of out- 
put, together with special reference to the hardening and tem- 
pering of press tools and to the classes of work which may be 
produced to the best advantage by the use of dies in the power 
press. Fourth edition. 400 pages. 500 illustrations. $3.00. 

WOODWORTH. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and Forging 
of Steel. 

A new book containing special directions for the successful 
hardening and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, 
thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches 
and dies, and all kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear 
blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal-cutting tools of all descrip- 
tions, as well as for all implements of steel, both large and small, 
the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and tempering pro- 
cesses are presented. The uses to which the leading brands of 
steel may be adapted are concisely presented, and their treatment 
for working under different conditions explained, as are also the 
special methods for the hardening and tempering of special 
brands. 320 pages. 250 illustrations. $2.50. 
WRIGHT. Electric Furnaces and Their Industrial Applications. 

Contains 285 pages, and 57 illustrations, which are essentially 
in the nature of sectional diagrams, representing principles of 
construction. This is a timely and practical treatise on the forms 
and uses of electric furnaces in modern electro-chemical pro- 
cesses. Price, $3.00. 



FEB 15 1907 



Chart I. Westinghouse High-Speed Brake and Signal Equipment 



-^3 



Chart II. Westinghouse Air Brake Equipment. 



"^ 




PLATE III. 
Colored Chart showing usual location of Air Brake and Signal Equipment on an Engine and Tender. 




Plate XIII — IMPROVED LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT — Schedule "ETV 




mhY 


i! ° £j \y 




r 1 1 [jv^ <£&—->— \ ^,)i~^ 3B2 ' 




xJij^M 










^yiu 






1 PRESSURE \ 
1 CHAMBER ; 


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Fig. 1 04.- AUTOMATIC SERVICE 




Fig. 105. -AUTOMATIC 




Plate XIII Continued — IMPROVED LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT — Schedule 'ET." 




PLATE XIV — THE "Ii" TRIPLE VALVE. 



face: view 
GRADUATING VALVE . 




